Discussion Papers 2007. No. 59.
Path Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport?
The Case Study of TWIST project
CENTRE FOR REGIONAL STUDIES
OF HUNGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DISCUSSION PAPERS
No. 59
Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport?
The Case Study of TWIST project
by
Ferenc, ERDOSI — Zoltan, GAL — Christoph GIPP — Viktor, VARJU
Editor
Viktor VARJU
Series editor
Zoltan GAL
Pecs
2007

Discussion Papers 2007. No. 59.
Path Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport?
The Case Study of TWIST project
Experience of the INTERREG IIIB — CADSES Project "Transport With
a Social Target", co-financed by the European Commission
This paper is financed by the TWIST (Transport With a Social Target)
INTERREG IIIB — CADSES Project
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INTERREG III B CADSES
Authors
Ferenc ERDOSI, scientific advisor, Centre for Regional Studies of HAS, Pecs.
ZoltAn GAL, senior research fellow, Centre for Regional Studies of HAS, Pecs.
Christoph GIPP, scientific research fellow — project manager, Berlin University of Tech-
nology, Institute of Land and Sea Transport Systems.
Viktor VARJU, junior research fellow, Centre for Regional Studies of HAS, Pecs.
ISSN 0238 2008
ISBN 978 963 9052 81 9
2007 by Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Technical editor: Ilona Csap6. Language editor: Gyorgy Varadi.
Printed in Hungary by Sumegi Nyomdaipari, Kereskedelmi es Szolgaltato Ltd., Pecs.

Discussion Papers 2007. No. 59.
Path Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport?
The Case Study of TWIST project
Contents
1  Introduction
  7
2  Legal background
  8
2.1  The Role of the DRT in the Transport Policy of the EU
  8
2.1.1  Sustainability as a Key Issue
  9
2.1.2  Traffic Extremities and their Handling Methods
  10
2.2 Technical rules — The EU Bus Directive
  13
2.3  Specific national regulations
  14
2.3.1  German Rules
  15
2.3.2  Hungarian Legal Background
  17
3  DRT Services in Europe
  18
3.1  Evolution of DRT Services
  18
3.2  Options for DRT Organisation And Operation
  19
3.3  European DRT in Scientific Research and in Practical Operation
  22
3.3.1
Sampo/Samplus
  22
3.3.2  ARTS
  23
3.3.3  Public Transport in Rural Areas (PNV-Region)
  23
3.3.4  The UK Case
  25
3.3.5  Further DRT Experience
  26
3.4  Summary of the Earlier DRT systems
  27
4  The Experimentation Areas
  28
4.1  Region Abruzzo
  28
4.1.1  Description of the Area
  28
4.1.2  Experimentation
  29
4.2  Region Apulia
  30
4.2.1  Description of the Area
  30
4.2.2  Experimentation
  32
4.3  Region Marche
  33
4.3.1  Description of the Area
  33
4.3.2  Experimentation
  34
4.4  Region Molise
  35
4.4.1  Description of the Area
  35
4.4.2  Experimentation
  36
4.5  Region Ioannina, Greece
  38
4.5.1  Description of the Area
  38
4.5.2  Experimentation
  39
4.6  Region Oberhavel, Germany
  40
4.6.1  Description of the Area
  40
4.6.2  Experimentation
  41
4.7  Region South Transdanubian, Hungary
  43
4.7.1  Description of the Area
  43
4.7.2  A Strategy to Implement DRT Services in Hungary
  44
4.8  The potentials of DRT as result of the Experimentation
  45

Discussion Papers 2007. No. 59.
Path Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport?
The Case Study of TWIST project
5 DRT Controlling and Cost-Effect Analysis
47
5.1 Model Contracts for Subcontractors in DRT Operation — A German
Example
47
5.2 Potentials for Cost Efficiency
50
6 Transferability
51
6.1 Applied Models in the TWIST Project — A DRT Service Model
51
6.2 The setting-up of a Theoretical Model
53
6.2.1 The identification of the Service Area
55
6.2.2 Fare System
55
6.2.3 Operational Rules for DRT Services
56
6.2.4 Licensing Process and Legal Aspects
57
6.2.5 Subcontracting and Liability for Operation
57
6.2.6 Business Model
58
6.3 Transfer Strategies
59
6.3.1 Transferability for the European Community
60
6.3.2 The most Important Aspects of Transferability
61
6.3.3 The transfer of numbers
63
7 Conclusion
64
References
67

Discussion Papers 2007. No. 59.
Path Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport?
The Case Study of TWIST project
List of figures
Figure 1 Relationship of car sharing with other modes of local transport
7
Figure 2 Basic conditions three essential components of sustainable transport as
part of sustainable development
11
Figure 3 Flexible Concepts in Public Transport Operation
21
Figure 4 Setting up of a DRT process
54
Figure 5 Elements and relations of a DRT Business Model
59
List of tables
Table 1 The proposed guidelines of sustainable transport
10
Table 2 Classes of vehicles regarding the EU Bus Directive
14
Table 3 DRT concepts within the Sampo/Samplus projects
23
Table 4 DRT concepts within the ARTS project
24
Table 5 DRT concepts within the PNVRegion projects
25
Table 6 Benchmarks for Costs in DRT Operation
50
Table 7 TWIST DRT Service Model
52
Table 8 Validity index for estimating the further use of DRT transportation
63
Table 9 Some indicators in the implementing regions
65

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
TWIST' (Transport with a Social Target) is a European part-financed project
by INTERREG III B — CADSES. It oriented towards the promotion of the mo-
bility in underprivileged areas by experimenting a Demand Responsive System.
Various European Countries (Italy, Germany, Greece, Hungary) participated in
the project and implemented (excluded Hungary) the pilot system.
The project of TWIST is inspired by the cohesion policies of the EU which
aim for territorial integration of countries or regions of countries which are
structurally less developed. Areas participating show a lack of balance in infra-
structural and transport services in mountain, rural and suburban areas.
The implementation of a DRT system aimed to reduce the social and eco-
nomic gap between inland and urban areas, and aimed to set up an appropriate
model to solve the problems in areas with similar background.
The social characteristics of the territories involved in the TWIST project
have the main objectives of offering the possibility for greater mobility to the
weakest part of the population, such as the elderly or disabled people, women,
children and others who have no own cars.
2 Legal background
2.1 The Role of the DRT in the Transport Policy of the EU
Similarly to other sectoral policies transport policy is designated for imple-
menting the objectives of the European Union defined as follows:
—Improving Europe's competitiveness against the world's other economic
centres (North-America, East-Asia);
—The harmonic and continuous development of the economy within the
Community adjusting to the environment and without being hindered by
serious inflation;
—A high level convergence of economic performances/services, i.e. balanc-
ing between regional and inter-sectoral economic processes;
—The improvement of living standards and living conditions;
—Economic and social cohesion;
—Increasing the solidarity between member states;
—High employment level and building an extensive social care system.
Since Maastricht several Green and White Papers have been issued on the
most important issues and segments of transport policy. Today due to the deep-
ening crisis of global ecology the EU' s policies are attaching a growing impor-
tance to sustainability (both from traffic and environmental aspects) and various
directives are issued for an environmental friendly transport.
www.twistproject.org
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
2.1.1 Sustainability as a Key Issue
In the past the environmental problems of transport were handled by creating
community legal rules for a certain issue of partial importance. The accelerating
decrease of the quality of environment (especially the greenhouse effect) made
necessary the multidimensional approach of the problem. The demand of a sys-
tem-wide approach to environmental issues and regarding environmental as-
pects as primary aspects was formulated even in the 1990 Dublin Declaration
before the Rio Conference. The European Community has declared its com-
mitment for environment oriented development even in its 5 th  Environmental
Action Plan. Article 130 of Maastricht Treaty has obliged the Community with
enforcing environmental aspects in the elaboration and implementation of the
Community's sectoral policies.
The EU considers sustainability as a superior principle to which community
policy (including environmental and transport policy) should comply with. This
requirement has been formulated on EU level even in the 1997 Amsterdam
Treaty. As a consequence of the above-mentioned poor state of environment the
sustainability of transport became a more and more worrying issue (primarily in
the most densely populated and most heavily "motorised" areas of West-Europe
in two aspects:
—In traffic aspects as more and more (financial environmental technical le-
gal/regulator) conditions are missing for building such a transport infra-
structure which capacities can keep pace with the demands of traffic but
moreover;
—In environmental aspects as transport is one of the most heavily pollutant
sectors it is damaging living (and partly built) environment in such a high
degree that is threatening their sustainability.
Maintaining sustainable mobility is definitively a big challenge  (Table 1).
Despite some scepticism the European Union is firmly devoted to the
achievement of sustainable transport until the year of 2020. Sustainable
transport, which is similar to the concept of "sustainable development"  (Figure
2), needs some (rather unstable) compromise.
Various steps should be made for the achievement of sustainability. The
majority of these actions is directly intervening into the mechanism of transport
but others indirectly only.
There are two very different ways of stopping environmental pollution:
—Actions needing no reduction in mobility;
—Actions relying on a series of measurements for reducing  mobility.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
2.1.2 Traffic Extremities and their Handling Methods
According to the 2001 White Paper the transport in the European Union is
threatened by a "stroke" in urban regions and by "paralysis" in peripheral areas.
This is not an overstatement as the changing socio-economic structure of set-
tlement networks and the restructuring of the spatial location of population and
their implications on transport demands and the spatial distribution of traffic
resulted in unfavourable changes in the past decades.
A growing rate of population, producer and other activities is located in ur-
ban agglomerations and concentrating in the proximity of interregional connec-
tion routes (high-speed trains, motorways, waterways) and sea ports and air-
ports in favourable locations offering high capacity and quick transportation and
cargo delivery facilities.
In these "core areas" and conurban territories traffic will increase to an un-
bearable level with constant traffic jams on main roads, motorways and the
speed of traffic will slow down enormously. Due to the heavily built in areas the
building of new roads for increasing the existing capacities will almost be im-
possible and if so their favourable impacts will weakly be felt because of their
traffic increasing effects.
Table 1
The proposed guidelines of sustainable transport
Guidelines
Description
Accessibility
Anyone should have reasonable access to places, goods
and services
Justice
Transport should meet the demands of various social
groups and generations
Health and security
Transport systems should be planned and operated making
no harms for health and personal security
Education and involvement
People and communities should completely involved into
transport related decision processes
Integrated planning
Various experts from different areas — environmental
protection, health, energy management and urban
planning should be involved into transport planning
The use of land and resources
Transport system should efficiently use available land and
other natural resources while maintaining the diversity of
the living world and biology
Environmental integration
Transport should make no harms for public health, global
climate and essential ecologic processes
Economic welfare
Taxation and economic policy should contribute to the
realization of fair and clean transport
Source: OECD Report, 1999.
10

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
• Tackling local/micro regional transport/traffic problems belongs to the tasks
of municipalities. The main objective on this level is stopping further traffic
increases (or at least slowing it to a minimal level) and decreasing traffic vol-
ume to as low level as possible. This can be achieved by technical developments
(by the extension of network, by influencing traffic by telematic devices and by
building new parking places etc.).
By applying partial traffic rationalisation/organisation, restriction measures
(total prohibition of cart traffic or its limitation to certain periods or hours of the
day).
Beyond these measures different direct and indirect methods are applied for
educating people for environment-friendly transport i.e. using cars in absolute
necessity only and using public transport or cycle or walk instead of a car.
Recently several attempts have been made to reduce the high pollution of
transport in urban/agglomeration areas (car, bus) (which can amount up to 70-
80% of total air pollution (after de-industrialization in countries of advanced
economic development industry fell back to the second or third place in the
ranking of the main pollutant agents!) such as hiring electric cars, a better utili-
zation of the capacities of personal cars, forming associations of transport, using
school buses, establishing city mobility centres, introducing ecological aware-
ness programmes and above all introducing demand responsive transport sys-
tems on local level.
Of them minibus 'jitney service' has been proved the most promising initia-
tion everywhere from Ukraine to the Atlantic area. In this case a small group of
passengers forms a team for the common use of a minibus for their daily travel
purposes and share the costs of their trips.
This form of travel mode is known as car sharing. In some cases this may
partially be funded by the local community's budget but it is not customary.
The competitiveness of car sharing which is the most popular in Germany
(Hamburg, Cottbus, Rostock, Berlin etc.) and Switzerland, several cars are
shared in this way, could be improved if a special lane were assigned to these
'tele-cars' and their travel services were rationalized by mobility management
services. The most serious problems of transport arise in big cities where people
in move have great difficulties in getting a clear insight into the multiple actors
and complex system of urban transport offering a large scale and diversity of
services and the modes of personal transport in different urban quarters and
streets. The orientation is also difficult under these complex circumstances
choosing the right time, place and means of transport. At a certain development
level metropolises can afford to establish a new institution of transport man-
agement. The transport management centre's task is optimizing the supply side
of transport and traffic flow in a network by the utilization of transport telemat-
ics, information and management systems for a better use of existing capacities.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
This function can be extended by a mobility management system servicing po-
tential passengers. This is definitely a demand oriented service providing de-
tailed and comprehensive (computerised) information for channelling the ma-
jority of mobility requests into public and target group oriented transportation
modes.
The other side of transportation extremities is servicing the transport demand
of sparsely populated rural areas in an appropriate form.
Until 1990, the date of the collapse of the socialist system, the problems of
servicing these areas by means of public transport was raised within the frame-
work of market economy in West-Europe, as the utilisation of the conventional
means of transport (train, bus, ship and air services) was very low, some per
cent only, and the big difference between high costs and low revenues resulted
in heavy losses and the system of public transport in rural areas became eco-
nomically unsustainable. At first these heavy losses were counterbalanced by
drastically reducing the frequency of services, by simplifying the transport
modes and by increasing the subsidization of the state. In the sparsely popu-
lated, boreal climate areas of Northern-Europe this problem has been tackled by
using a mixed transport system (the transportation of school-children to schools
and seriously ill patients to hospitals is a joint task of the state and local munici-
pality but in general personal transportation services are provided by flexible
systems. A similar system has been introduced in the internal regions of Spain
as well.
2.2 Technical rules — The EU Bus Directive
At European level, the rules and regulations regarding freedom from barriers are
concretised in, for example, the EU Bus Directive (Directive 2001/85/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2001 relating to spe-
cial provisions for vehicles used for the carriage of passengers comprising more
than eight seats in addition to the driver's seat, and amending Directives
70/156/EEC and 97/27/EC).
"While the principal aim of this Directive is to guarantee the safety of pas-
sengers, it is also necessary to provide technical prescriptions to allow accessi-
bility for persons of reduced mobility to the vehicles covered by the Directive,
in accordance with the Community transport and social policies. Every effort
must be made to improve access to these vehicles. To this end, accessibility for
persons of reduced mobility can be achieved either by technical solutions ap-
plied to the vehicle, as covered by this Directive, or by combining them with
appropriate local infrastructure to guarantee access for wheelchair users" (rea-
son No. 11, Directive 2001/85/EC).
13

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
For the technical implementation detailed "Requirements for Technical De-
vices Facilitating Access for People of Reduced Mobility" are included in
Annex VII.
One of the purposes of the EU Bus Directive is to improve the accessibility
to the transport vehicles for all groups of passengers. Article DI of the directive
asks that access to all buses used in the urban transport should be guaranteed for
all people with reduced mobility and wheelchair users. The accessibility must
be ensured for Class I urban buses for more than 22 passengers. For smaller
urban buses (Class A, 8 to 22 passengers) and regional regular buses (Class II),
each member state of the European Union can find a different solution to ensure
the accessibility. If vehicles other than those of Class I are equipped with de-
vices for people with reduced mobility and/or wheelchair users, they shall com-
ply with the relevant requirements of Annex VII of the EU Bus Directive  (Table
2).
Table 2
Classes of vehicles regarding the EU Bus Directive
Class  I
Class  II
Class  III
Class A
Class  B
Capaci ty exceeding 22 passengers
Capacity lower th an 22 passengers
Vehicles con-
Vehicles con-
Vehicles con-
Vehicles de-
Vehicles not de-
structed with ar-
structed princi-
structed exclu-
signed to carry
signed to carry
eas for standing
pally for the car-
sively for the
standing passen-
standing passen-
passengers, to
riage of seated
carriage of seated  gers; a vehicle
gers; a vehicle of
allow frequent
passengers, and
passengers.
of this Class has
this Class has no
passenger move-
designed to allow
seats and shall
provision for
ment.
the carriage of
have provision
standing passen-
standing passen-
for standing pas-
gers.
gers in the gang-
sengers.
way.
Source:  Directive 2001/85/EC of the European Parliament  and of the Council  of 20 November
2001, Edited by Gipp.
2.3 Specific national regulations
Our standpoint is that problems begin with national legislation. As we could
realise during the implementation usually the possibility and the identification
of flexible transport did not exist on national level. Fortunately in several
countries (Germany, Italy) the need and the idea of demand responsive solution
appeared on regional or local level. But as experience suggests us we have
problems in eastern part of Europe (e.g. in Hungarian legislation).
14

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
As you can see below the German legal background in order to the real and
flexible mobility is much chiselled than the Hungarian one. The convergence is
justified not just economically between the western and eastern part of Europe
but legislatively — especially in real mobility — as well.
2.3.1 German Rules
With the provision of the German Basic Constitutional Law "No person shall be
disadvantaged because of disability" (Article 3 (3) GG) the authors of the con-
stitution of the Federal republic of Germany stated clearly that "disadvanta-
geous and exclusionary provisions and discriminatory conditions in the every-
day lives of disabled people are socially unacceptable" (official explanatory).
The following federal laws are important for complying with the ban on dis-
crimination in Article 3 (3) of the Basic Law:
—"Code of Social Law — Book IX (SGB IX): Rehabilitation and participa-
tion of disabled people" of 19 June 2001
—"Act on the Equal Treatment of Disabled People and on the Amendment
of Other Acts" of 27 April 2002, Article 1 of which constitutes the Equal
Treatment for the Disabled Act (Behindertengleichstellungsgesetz, BGG)
The Equal Treatment for the Disabled Act (BGG)
The priority goal of the act is to create a comprehensively interpreted free-
dom from barriers that for disabled people includes the elimination of both spa-
tial barriers and communication barriers.
"The term barrier-free is used to describe structural and other facilities,
modes of transport, technical consumer items, data processing systems, acoustic
and visual sources of information and means of communication, as well as other
structured areas of life if they can be accessed and used by disabled people in
the generally normal manner, without particular difficulty and in principle with-
out requiring the assistance of others" (Definition of freedom from barriers in
the Article 4 BGG).
The demand to participate equally in all areas of life and to have a self-de-
termined lifestyle is specifically taken into account through the condition "in
principle accessible and usable without the assistance of others". Freedom from
barriers is a target for structuring areas of life. The specification is carried out
through DIN standards, general technical standards and programmes, plans and
agreements. Providing the most extensive freedom from barriers is set out as an
objective in the relevant specialist laws. The legal requirement that "publicly
accessible transport facilities and means of conveyance in public transport must
be designed barrier-free as provided for the pertinent legislation enhanced by
15

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
the federal government" (Article 8 paragraph 2 BGG) is important for the public
transport.
The Passenger Transport Act (PBefG) and the public transport plan
When developing a new public transport plan principals (e.g. the town,
county or region) have to satisfy the requirements of mobility-restricted passen-
gers. The following provision was inserted into the Passenger Transport Act on
1 May 2002: "The public transport plan must take account of the interests of
disabled people and other people with mobility impairments for the purpose of
achieving the maximum freedom from barriers in using public transport; the
public transport plan shall contain statements on time requirements and neces-
sary measures. As the plan is being drawn up, any existing representatives of
the disabled or advisory councils for the disabled of the principal shall be con-
sulted" (Article 8, paragraph 3, clauses 3 and 4 PBefG).
The operators are obliged to specify the measures that will be used to put
into practice the statements on freedom from barriers. "In all cases the applica-
tion for approval shall contain [.. 1 a description of the measures for achieving
maximum barrier-free use of the transport for which the application is submit-
ted, in accordance with the statements set out in the public transport plan [...]"
(Article 12, paragraph 1, No. 1(c) PBefG). The public transport plan is an un-
dertaking on the part of the principles.
Ordinance on the Operation of Motor Vehicle Companies in Passenger
Transport (BOKraft)
The Ordinance on the Operation of Motor Vehicle Companies in Passenger
Transport (BOKraft) applies to companies that carry passengers using motor
vehicles or trolley-buses. The needs of mobility restricted passengers are only
regarded in Article 34 BOKraft: "The operator shall provide seating for the
seriously disabled, people with impaired mobility, elderly or frail people, ex-
pectant mothers and passengers with small children [...]".
The Building Codes of the Federal States
Also the building codes of the federal states contemplate the requirements of
barrier-free construction, such as step-free accessibility, door widths, ramps and
movement areas. Partly they are created by ordinances, initial enactments or
guidelines. The introduction of special DIN standards (e.g. DIN 18024 Part 1:
"Barrier-free built environment: Streets, squares, paths, public transport, recrea-
tion areas and playgrounds") applicable to building supervision is important for
the implementation of the requirements of mobility-restricted people.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
2.3.2 Hungarian Legal Background
As Hungary concerned National regulation nr. 33/2004. adopted the nr.1191/69
EU regulation in 2004 in the field of public passenger transportation. Hungarian
Bus Transport being a regulated (not fully liberalised) market, regulation
protects companies, already in the markets, from the new entrants. Until 2012
only 5-35%-of services can be provided by new entrants as subcontractors
(there are no examples of this due to the unprofitability of public bus transporta-
tion service).
National regulation nr. 33/2004. defines different fields of passenger trans-
port (rail bus) and differentiates between local and inter-locational transport.
National regulation regulates the composition of nationwide timetable and
(price) discount decree. There is a nationwide tariffs union of the 24 bus com-
panies responsible for Inter-locational Bus Transport. Bus companies make
"public service provision" contract with the Ministry of Economy &Transport
for inter-locational transport service provision, while companies in larger town
responsible for local transport make contract with local self-governments
(municipialities). There is no specified territorial scope of DRT and bus compa-
nies (24 large ones), usually operate on county level.
Because of the causes mentioned above, big bus transport companies have
monopoly rights for servicing their area until year 2013. There is an alternative
plan for the entry of private transport service providers into the market but it is
not operational. The major problem here is that Hungarian laws have maximised
the servicing rate of private sector in coach transport services in 35%. This was
not an attractive perspective for the actors of market as it gives no opportunities
for gaining profits and according to this concept coach services do rather fall
under the 'category' of regulated market than free market. On the other hand,
today in Hungary the number of coach services is decreasing.
A plan has already been made for the 'privatisation' of coach services which
tried to reform the present anomalies of coach transport. According to this con-
cept the operation (and ownership) of Baranya County Coach Company should
have been transferred to the county seat's (Pecs) local government free of
charge but this experiment has failed. The monopoly of Volan Coach Transport
Company in county coach services prevents the extension of the bus services of
the public transport company of Pecs into the agglomeration zone.
Another important difficulty appeared during the research. Nowadays in
Hungary municipalities or micro regions have microbuses using them for school
bus or other social purposes. These buses are not in use all day therefore it can
be a solution to use them — operating by local self-governments and cooperating
with public transport provider — as a flexible solution answering the demands in
off-peak time. But Hungarian legislation does not allowe micro regions or
17

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
municipalities to use these buses for satisfying other claims. In this case
municipalities have to buy or lend new buses to response these demands. As it
can be seen this part of legislation needs renewing.
3 DRT Services in Europe
Various rural areas all over Europe can be characterized by a lack of public
mobility services. Declining population number, structural changes and the
increasing use of private cars cause serious problems to guarantee mobility ac-
cess for the population.
Several groups can be identified which do not have a private car access: eld-
erly people, mothers with small children and young people under the age of 18
without a driving licence. Public transport services are a basic requirement to
ensure a minimum of mobility to these population groups. To ensure the acces-
sibility of rural areas authorities and operators have to find a way to provide a
good quality public transport which is affordable and accessible also in areas
and times of low demand.
The several European countries can be characterized by different market
structures in public transportation, different legal frameworks (e.g. for licensing
and bidding processes) and different levels of co-ordination between the au-
thorities, operators and customers. Therefore innovation processes in rural pub-
lic transport also require different mobility solutions. The integration of school
transportation into the public transport network is for example an innovation in
Spanish rural areas whereas it is a common practice in Germany.
The key word for mobility solutions in rural areas of low demand is Demand
Responsive Transport (DRT).
3.1 Evolution of DRT Services
The first efforts to DRT were made in the 1980s (e.g. in Germany and UK) with
dial-a-bus services. In most cases these projects were not successful and the
services terminated after a few years. Reasons for the failures are different: lack
of flexibility, economic fears of the operators, difficulties caused by insufficient
legal basis, incalculable costs, lack of engagement of local actors, competition
with taxi business, complicated access via telephone etc.
Many DRT dial-a-bus services were supposed to be a taxi service for the old
and the poor which resulted in a low consumer acceptance. Nevertheless, there
could be gained much experience.
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in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
Over the last decade DRT and dial-a-bus services have grown in popularity.
Technological innovation enabled the implementation of new telematics-based
systems. This improvement offered, amongst others, new possibilities regarding
fleet dispatching. To strive for an increased collaboration between the transpor-
tation companies and the taxi business should be the aim of all new projects in
the DRT sector. The management of dial-a-ride services should be located at
transportation companies; the operation should be integrated in taxi business or
as well in public transport companies. Currently it is possible for taxi or rental
car companies to execute operation as a subcontractor.
Furthermore it is important to communicate towards the residents of an area
served by a DRT service that dial-a-bus services can be used by everyone.
3.2 Options for DRT Organisation and Operation
Demand responsive transport services can be arranged in various operating
modes.
—Flexibility in time implies a service operation only after a pre-trip reserva-
tion which normally has to be accomplished 30 to 90 minutes in advance.
Although there may exist a defined timetable, the vehicles operate only on
request to avoid deadhead trips. Several DRT services operate without any
predefined timetable.
—Modal flexibility can be defined by the possibility to use different vehicle
sizes (standard buses, mini-buses, vans, taxi).
—The route and the stops on a DRT service can be fixed, so that they could
be served in any case. Spatial flexibility means the substitution of prede-
fined routes in favour of a corridor or an area around the basic route. Both
bus stops and points anywhere in the region indicated by an address can
be beginning and end of a trip.
Temporal, modal and areal flexibility can be combined with each other.
Within public transport network, DRT services can have different tasks.
Autonomous DRT services are operated without any relation to other public
transport services. The local spatiotemporal requirements, like opening hours or
the location of the community or the health services, determine the service.
Unlike the stand-alone DRT service, almost all of the costumers of DRT
feeder service use it as a feeder service to a fix scheduled services. It is the con-
necting stop that mostly determines the operation of the feeder service as it has
a predefined passing time and is always served. This kind of service is often
installed for saving travelling time on fix scheduled service by avoiding devia-
tions.
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in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
have the form of a demand responsive scheduled service or an area-wide ser-
vice.
The route deviation is characterised by a regular scheduled service on a fixed
line which is supplemented by demand responsive served stops along the main
route.
For flexible service in a corridor there are one or more fixed stops with fixed
passing times. Demand responsive served stops are installed in the corridor
between them. The route between fixed stops is determined flexible by the pas-
sengers' trip plans. For further structuring defining passing times for single
DRT-stops could be useful.
The sector operation neither has fixed routes. Mostly there is one fixed stop
with a fixed servicing time. The remaining stops are demand responsivelys
served. The routes are defined by the passengers' trip plans. This could lead to
highly varying servicing times. Like by all other forms of the flexible service in
a corridor the trips are orientated to fixed time frames and follow fixed point.
In respect to the levels of flexibility, the area-wide service has to be seen in
the fields door-to-door and many-to-many. The routes and times of service are
only determined by the passengers' trip plans.
Demand responsive fix scheduled service means a service on fixed routes to
fixed times which will only be operated if an announcement is made. Departure
and arrival stop have to be known, which allows a partially operation of the line.
However, there are a lot of hybrids among these four DRT models; e. g. also
in the flexible service in a corridor a stop-to-door service is possible.
3.3
European DRT in Scientific Research and in Practical Operation
Beside the objective to gather the social impact of DRT services and flexible
mobility solutions for the population in mountainous and rural areas the TWIST
project is a key project which profits from a number of further research activi-
ties and existing DRT experiences. The following examples give an overview
on European and national research projects and DRT services in operation.
3.3.1 Sampo/Samplus
The aim of the EU project Sampo (1996-97) and its continuation Samplus
(1998-2000) was the development and testing of systems for the DRT man-
agement. It was settled in the more general Telematics Applications Program
(TAP) of the EU. Different rural and urban regions in Belgium, Finland, Swe-
den, Ireland, Italy and Great Britain were involved. Also different service to-
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Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
historical knowledge of customer demands influences the route taken and the
type of vehicle used) they interpret the term of demand responsive transport
services as real "flexible route" services adjusted to concrete passenger de-
mands. In this case the concrete travel demand can change the fixed route in
time and space during each travel. (Brake—Nelson—Wright, 2004).
3.3.5 Further DRT Experience
The "Taxitub" system of Saint-Brieuc (France) is a kind of DRT service but
possesses all the characteristics of regular line services (fixed routes and stops;
timetable). The lines are only activated by user's request. Requests can be made
at least 45 minutes before and a maximum of 10 days before departure. The
request of a Taxitub ride can be made via telephone push buttons (departure
time, number of passengers, departure stop, arrival stop, etc.). Between 1992
and 2001 the number of routes increased from 23 to 45 virtual lines. Together
with that the number of passengers raised from 8.400 to about 11.000 passen-
gers per year (see Epe, 2006).
Other experiences could show the successful implementation of DRT like
Treintaxi (The Netherlands), PubliCar (Switzerland) or Anrufbus Leer (DRT
System Leer/Germany). Beside that many systems failed in order to various
above mentioned structural problems (see chapter Evolution of DRT systems).
The MASCARA project aims to become a vehicle for the promotion and
widespread implementation of site-specific Collective Demand Responsive
Transport Services (DRTS) as a key component of social cohesion, sustainable
and competitive development in European Regions. The MASCARA partner-
ship includes 7 Transport Operators / Authorities / Universities from 7 Euro-
pean Regions representing different transport /mobility environments, ranging
from large metropolitan areas to small towns in more rural areas. This provides
an ideal context for investigating DRT mobility solutions and achieving useful
tangible, results regarding mobility service accessibility. The Evaluation Plan
received inputs from all sites describing the local area, local user groups, popu-
lation densities, demographics, commercial/educational activities and transpor-
tation routes for existing and proposed modes. This will ensure that the evalua-
tion yields "an action plan to conduct sustainability analysis of potential DRT
services" and leads to "guidelines to enable local authorities and PT operators to
set their DRT services and links with companies providing the market with
technologies, organisational and support services". A number of different drafts
of the Evaluation Methodology were produced by Porto and refined by all part-
ners. All partners actively participated and exchanged information on training
courses and project meetings (see Cork City Council).
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Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
In nine municipalities of the Mountain Community of Montefeltro, this De-
- mand Responsive Transport service satisfies the need for mobility in territories
characterised by weak demand, making regularly scheduled line service eco-
nomically inefficient. At each stop covered by the service, a map of all the other
stops in the municipality serviced on a demand responsive basis can be viewed.
Reservations are made by telephone for daily, weekly or monthly rides, as long
as they are received at least one day prior to the date on which the service is
requested (see Comune di Tavoleto).
A Demand Responsive Transport service established under the project enti-
tled AGATA (Agence de multiservices basee sur des Telecentres pour la ges-
tion integree de la mobility et de l'accessibilite aux services de transport), part
of the European Regional Cooperation Program INTERREG III B — MEDOCC.
To benefit from the PRONTOBUS service, users must be registered. Once the
service has been activated, users will be able to make reservations by means of
a toll-free number or the on-line reservation section of the service's portal,
specifying: the zone in which the service is requested, the stops for pick-up and
drop-off, the requested times of pick-up and drop-off and the number of seats
onboard the bus. Registered users may reserve one or more rides a day, round-
trip if necessary. If the ride is required habitually, they can reserve the service
for a given period of time, even reserving rides scheduled for different times
and destinations on different days (see A GATA).
3.4 Summary of the Earlier DRT Systems
The description of various European experiences with DRT and flexible public
transport services shows that many different areas try to solve transport prob-
lems and to cover low demands. In the context TWIST enables us to learn from
all of this case studies and practical examples. It is a crucial advantage for
TWIST that we are able to gather specific solutions for the different implemen-
tation areas together with the chance to avoid serious failure reasons. TWIST
will cover some additional benefits for rural transport operation and cost effi-
ciency of services because many problems remained unsolved in the past pro-
jects.
Experience from across Europe suggests that for financial and scheduling
reasons, DRT services do not aim to be the dominant public transport supplier
in a market, but are regarded as a vital supplier of services where conventional
solutions are untenable, for example low demand areas, special transport ser-
vices and where social exclusion is evident with low number of potential pa-
tronage (where the conventional means of public transport are insufficient).
Elderly people, young passengers, disabled social groups and individuals with-
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Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
out cars may have extreme significance in servicing transport demands within
the framework of DRT systems.
Past DRT experience have shown that the more regulated the economic/legal
environment, the less conflict there is between DRT and other public transport
modes.
It seems in terms of technologies for DRT services, the level of telematics
support available at the local level is critical. In any situation, major investment
into TDCs and telematic networks can only normally be justified if high patron-
age can be confidently predicted. Fortunately, regarding mobile phone and other
ICT technologies, the telematics solutions for DRT are highly transferable to
rural and urban areas making the access to telecommunication services easier
and cheaper.
Intermodality needs an adequate environment. Some fixed stops are needed
by all means for interconnections. Services need a fixed starting time and a
definite starting point for departure. Completely circular schemed flexible
routes very rarely prove to be viable in the long run.
4 The Experimentation Areas
4.1 Region Abruzzo2
4.1.1 Description of the Area
The Mountain Community Medio Sangro Zone  "R"  in the Province of Chieti,
with offices at the Municipality of Quadri, has been identified as the area for
implementation in the Abruzzo Region. The total area of the Mountain Com-
munity amounts to 157.73 square kilometres, the equivalent of 6.10% of the
territory of the Province of Chieti, with a density of 36.38 inhabitants per square
kilometre, a value decidedly inferior to the provincial average of 148 inhabitants
per square kilometre. The majority of the population, amounting to 5,783 in-
habitants, equivalent to 70.08%, reside in a zone at an altitude of between 500
and 1,000 m above sea level. The remaining 29.92% residing at between 1000
and 1500 m above sea level are distributed not only in urban centres, but also in
residential settlements and houses dispersed across the communal territory. The
orography of the Mountain Community territory is uneven with aspects con-
nected to the presence of waterways and a section with a higher drop down to
the Sangro River, which characterises the territory.
2  D'Orazio,  2006
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Regarding the economic aspects of the community, the activities of service-
producing sectors relative to commerce, receptivity and catering have registered
the highest number of personnel. Tourism is one of the opportunities for local
economic development together with promotion of the natural and historical
elements of this part of the Medio Sangro, which has already stimulated the
preliminary development of tourist-receptive activities. The industrial index is
very low (from 1970 to 1996, on average of only 3% of the resident population
in the nine municipal areas was employed in industry) confirming dependence
on industrialisation in the lower valleys of the Sangro. The construction sector
however historically results in the highest number of local units and employees.
Since the fifties the primary activities of agriculture and zoo technology have
lost importance in the economy of the Communities of the Medio Sangro, with
a profound transformation coinciding with the phenomenon of immigration.
Apart from the company providing regional railway transport, local public
transport is guaranteed by another three local public road transport companies,
which ensure local and interregional transport to Molise. The single municipali-
ties and the Mountain Community are provided with their own means to inte-
grate said service with that of scholastic transport. The Mountain Community
has features similar to those of all the mountain zones in the internal regions:
scarcely populated, insufficient infrastructure and a scarce propensity for indus-
trial development.
4.1.2 Experimentation
The Medio Sangro Mountain Community resents the features typical of an area
with a weak demand for public transportation. The demographic dimensions of
the area, which holds fewer than 6,000 inhabitants, the extremely limited popu-
lation density (36.38 residents per km2) and the high ageing index (equal to
282%) mean that Demand Responsive Transport service can be effectively car-
ried out by only four vehicles, one of which serves as spare, each seating sixteen
passengers (or twelve, in the case of vehicles outfitted for disabled transport).
The four vehicles, equipped with interactive onboard terminals, are managed
by means of a continuous connection with the operations control centre, located
at the headquarters of the Mountain Community. The centre receives requests
for the service from the users and confirms that the requests are compatible with
the scheduled service plan by means of dedicated software (Telebus). Informa-
tion is exchanged using GSM or GPRS (General Racket Radio Service) signals,
while the location of the vehicle is tracked with GPS. The service is provided on
both sides of the Sangro Valley, the area holding the destinations of interest to
the residents of the Mountain Community.
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The drawing of the graphic illustration for the TWIST transport network
guarantees connections, both modal and inter-modal, between the municipalities
inside the Mountain Community, as well as between the later and the major
destinations that attract flows of transport. The graphic illustration was drawn
up on the basis of the geographic characteristics of the area of implementation,
facilitating the placement of preset stops (pick-up points). The residential pat-
terns of the local population, which tends to cluster (at a rate of nearly 90%)
around urban centres and inhabited areas, rather than living in homes spread
throughout the territory, makes the placement of the pick-up points almost
obligatory. Within the group of pick-up points, a distinction can be made be-
tween those with set pick-up times and those where pick-ups are made at the
request of the users (variable scheduling).
The project is being enacted under a partnership between the Mountain
Community and the manager of the Local Public Transportation Service: while
the proper operation of the Call Center is overseen by the Mountain Commu-
nity, which has hired specially trained personnel for the task, the transportation
of the users is the responsibility of the local manager of the TPL "Autolinee
Casciato S.r.l.". The drivers of the vehicles, hired for the experimentation peri-
ods, have been trained in the use of the onboard terminals, in order to guarantee
continuous and effective connection with the operations control centre.
As a preliminary approach, the service follows a pre-set route along which
"latent stops" are made exclusively at the request of users. This means that cer-
tain lines consisting only of stops made upon request are operated only when
there are requests for the service. Permanent service is provided on certain days
of the week along set lines that present a constant level of demand. The service
operates from 6:36 am to 5:00 pm on weekdays, and from 6:36 Am to 9:05 pm
on Saturdays and days preceding holidays. Extensive publicity has been given
to the program in schools and public offices (posters and pocket-size schedules),
while the reservation services in operation include the toll-free number 800-
138-078, which is answered by an operator at the Call Center of the Mountain
Community.
4.2 Region Apulia3
4.2.1 Description of the Area
The area bordering Molise and Campania is delimited to the Northwest by the
Fortore River, to the South by the Salsola Torrent and to the East by the
Tavoliere Plain. The Mountain Communities of the Northern Apennine Dauno
3 D'Argento, 2006.
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include thirteen municipalities (Alberone, Biccari, Carlantino; Casalnuovo,
Monterotaro, Castelnuovo della Daunia, Casalvecchio di Puglia, Celenza Val-
sortore, Motte Montecorvino, Pietra Montecorvino, Roseto Valfortore, San
Marco la Catola, Valfortore Appula and Volturino) comprising a total popula-
tion of 22,713 inhabitants. The surface area amounts to 675.95 km 2, of which
537.78 km2 are classified as mountainous territory, explaining the data relative
to the population density, which is the lowest in the region (equivalent to
33.60%). With reference to the demographic situation, the present situation of
depopulation is aggravated by an increase in the index of the old-aged popula-
tion (205.4% is the average data of the Sub-Apennine), which directly reflects
on the occupational situation as well as the educational level of the population.
Continuous depopulation creates serious problems for attracting capital and
motivating investment and thus scarce entrepreneurial initiative caused by the
low relational density and reduced demand together with a minimal degree of
management and financing for the structures is offered. Data relative to the
average level of education of the population highlights a low index of high
school education and still a large degree of illiteracy, nurturing an evident di-
vergence between employment expectations and the opportunities offered by
the system (the unemployment rate in 2001 was 18.1% with peaks of 29 and
27% in some municipal areas).
The road infrastructure is decidedly inadequate with a lack of both medium
and high-speed roads and those present are all two-lane roads with single lanes
in each direction. Furthermore due to the morphological configuration of the
territory these roads are curved rendering it impossible to exceed an average
speed of 45km/h. Mobility is almost exclusively through private vehicles di-
rected toward external centres characterised by greater development. Local
public transport seems incapable of satisfying the requirements of the residents
and the tourist demand. The zone is currently served by a bus connecting a few
municipalities with each other and the nearest urban centres, these journeys are
concentrated in particular during the hours of commuter transport. In this con-
text the socio-economic and road situation is destined to be further aggravated
by the absence of any integrated social capital support for the productive re-
sources and territorial infrastructure. It seems necessary therefore to improve
the infrastructure with a transport service capable of linking the entire territory.
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4.2.2 Experimentation
The experimentation of the TWIST project in the Apulia Region began in the
Northern Daunia zone of the Apennines, one of the region's most disadvantaged
areas in socioeconomic terms. Characterised by the presence of primarily
mountainous zones within a total surface area of approximately 676 km 2, the
area holds nothing but small-scale towns (from 1,000 to 3,000 inhabitants per
municipality), in addition to which the ageing index is high, as the bulk of the
population is over 65 years old.
The roadway infrastructures are extremely scarce, all consisting of a single
roadbed, with one lane of travel in each direction. The highly TWISTing paths
taken by the roads, as well as the sharp changes in altitude, keep the average
travelling speed below 45 km/h. What is more, the area is currently serviced
exclusively by buses providing connections between only some of the towns
and the larger nearby urban centres, with the bulk of the runs occurring during
the day-parts in which commuters travel to school or work.
The area originally selected for implementation of the project held all thir-
teen of the towns that make up the Northern Daunia Mountain Community,
whose demand for internal transportation is low, on account of the absence of
sites of attraction, apart from an advanced spa centre found in the town of Cas-
telnuovo della Daunia. It was thus decided to reduce the number of towns ser-
viced by TWIST to ten, though these municipalities were provided with a con-
nection to the town of Lucera, which turns out to be the urban centre of greatest
interest, as well as the one nearest the area of experimentation. In addition, it
holds Local Healthcare Board FG/3 (covering all the towns in the experimental
area), plus a hospital and the INPS pension institute office for the zone.
At present, therefore, the experimentation is being carried out in the towns
of: Carlantino, Celenza Valfortore, San Marco la Catola, Volturara Appula,
Volturino, Motta Montecorvino, Pietramontecorvino, Castelnuovo della Daunia,
Casalvecchio di Puglia and Casalnuovo Monterotaro. The transportation service
runs on a "call-in" basis, with flexible routes and schedules tailored to meet the
needs of the users. A short model bus has been selected for the service, with a
seating room for nine and the features necessary for disabled passengers. The
service is in operation from Monday to Friday, during the hours of 9:09 am to
3:40 pm. Reservations can be made by calling the toll-free number 800-904770,
which is answered by an operator who collects the requests, organises the route
and communicates confirmation of the service to the users who have made res-
ervations.
The Call Centre is in operation from 1:30 pm to 6:00 pm daily, with the ex-
ception of Saturdays and Sundays. The distances between the different towns,
together with the low average travelling speed, made it impossible to implement
a service that meets the requests received in real time. Instead, an off-line sys-
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tern was adopted, meaning one under which reservations must be made no less
than 12 hours in advance of the actual performance of the service. The reserva-
tions received are processed by Pluservice' s "Telebus" software, a program
capable of determining the optimal route on the basis of input supplied by users
and supplemented by subsequent input. All the calls received and the routes
drawn up on a daily basis are registered and catalogued, with the result that they
shall serve as a key source for analysing the service at the end of the experi-
mentation. On the other hand, the vehicles were not outfitted with onboard de-
vices for communication with the Operations Centre, a feature held to be point-
less, given that it is not possible to vary the route during the run. Promoted
through the distribution of leaflets and the display of posters in the towns in-
volved, as well as television commercials broadcast by the local station
"Telenorba", the service began operation on 11 September 2006.
4.3 Region Marche°
4.3.1 Description of the Area
Alto Maceratese is characterised by the presence of several hamlets and tiny
housing clusters, the majority being of a rural nature, disseminated across a
scarcely inhabited territory. The area is represented by the Mountain Communi-
ties of Camerino, San Severino Marche (Alte Valli del Potenza and dell'Esino)
and San Ginesio (Monti Azzuri). The Mountain Community of Camerino
(749.13 km2) is a zone with a demographic decline caused by continuous de-
population from the area towards the urban centres and a progressive aging of
the resident population. This area, although on the outskirts of the centre of
provincial development, houses a first class cultural centre — the University of
Camerino. The naturalistic, environmental and cultural patrimony of the terri-
tory is represented by the National Park of the Sibylline Mountains and the
Natural Reserve of Abaddia di Fiastra. The Mountain Community of San
Severino Marche, or "Alte Valli del Potenza and Esino" (623.14 km2), has en-
tered a phase of demographic growth thanks to immigration resulting in a slow
but progressive peopling of the principal urban centres.
The area, a barycentre in respect to the bordering centres of industrial devel-
opment, is characterised by the presence of small and medium sized industry.  In
the Mountain Community of San Ginesio, or "Monti Azzurri" (504.83 km 2) the
resident population results as substantially unvaried over the years, but showing
significant movement toward the industrial centres of Tolentino and the ad-
joining Belforte del Chienti. The economy of the area is characterised by the
4  Pongetti,  2006
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presence of several agricultural firms and animal breeding farms, as well as
receptive tourist structures, favoured by a rich naturalistic and environmental
patrimony.
The road system and mobility in Alto Macerate is conditioned by a range of
hills and mountains and a branched road network with long winding stretches
and steep inclines even on provincial and state roads. Similarly the railway sys-
tem lacks fast transversal connections with the Tyrrhenian side, heavily limiting
access to the territory. Currently local public road transport is the principal
source guaranteeing a service of mobility. In a situation of progressive aban-
donment of the rural zones, the resources destined to local public transport are
often reduced to the supply of minimal services. In this context demand respon-
sive transport represents a modification (and integration) of the present transport
system, capable of offering better capillarity and usability of the public service.
4.3.2 Experimentation
Given the layout and the specific morphology of the Macerata hinterland, an
area that includes the three Mountain Communities of Camerino, San Severino
and San Ginesio, it is not always possible to provide TPL services that fully
satisfy the needs of local residents. With its scattered habitation patterns and
high rate of ageing, the territory presents the features of an area with a weak
demand for public transport, explaining why it was selected for the TWIST pilot
project.
The experimental TWIST Demand Responsive Transport service was started
up by the Marches Region on 1 August 2006. The experimentation is being
carried out with 4 vehicles that hold 19 passengers each, one of them outfitted
for the transport of disabled people. The vehicles are equipped with interactive
onboard terminals operated by software installed at the Operations Centre in
Castelraimondo, plus devices onboard the buses, designed to dialogue with the
Operations Centre through the "Telebus" system and its GPRS/UMTS technol-
ogy.
These instruments track the bus using satellite technology, transmitting the
information directly to the Operations Centre:
—The Operations Centre immediately transfers the requests to the software.
—The software processes all the requests received, setting the route to be
followed.
—The user is informed of the trip specifications.
—The software sends the data to the interface installed on the buses used for
the service; the interface registers the data.
—The driver, based on the information received, carries out the service.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
The TWIST service is offered from Monday to Saturday between 7:30 am
and 12:30 pm, with 1 bus earmarked for the purpose, while, during the rest of
the schedule, the 4 other fixed-route vehicles service branches of the fixed lines
when necessary. Users wishing to call in a reservation for a ride can do so up to
20 minutes before departure (in this last case, the user's request is satisfied if
the scheduled service plan makes it possible), procuring a ticket for a simple
ride, based on the regional fee for kilometres travelled, by simply calling the
toll-free number 800-037737. What is more, during other parts of the day, cer-
tain stops-upon request can be reserved, assuming operations on the fixed-
service lines permit it.
The area selected for the experimentation includes a number of towns in the
three mountain communities of the upper Macerata zone, with the primary ob-
jective being to provide connections between these zones and the towns which,
because they offer various types of structures (hospitals, sports facilities etc.)
are destinations frequently requested by users.
The service is carried out by Contram SpA, a local public transportation op-
erator in the Upper Macerata zone, employing human resources that work inside
the company, managing calls and software plus resources that work outside,
such as the drivers. Contram has installed the Operations Centre in a branch
office in Castelraimondo, where the operators, during set hours, answer calls
and handle requests, reporting to the Transport Movement Office at the central
headquarters in Camerino at the end of the day.
The TWIST initiative has been publicised among families in the towns cov-
ered through the sending of envelopes containing a letter from the Head of the
Regional Transportation Bureau, a map of the service and a brochure on the
operating procedures. The experimentation has been further highlighted with
posters, the distribution of fliers and other information materials on the vehicles
and in the towns involved, plus the publication of press releases in local media.
4.4 Region Molise 5
4.4.1 Description of the Area
Molise is a predominantly mountainous region extending across 4,438 km 2,
with a population of 320,601 inhabitants. The area identified for implementa-
tion consists of the municipal territories of Bonefro, Casacalenda, Castellino del
Biferno, Colletorto, Larino, Montelongo, Monotorio nei Frentani, Morrone del
5 Storto, 2006
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
Sannio, Provvidenti, Ripabottoni, Rotello, San Giuliano di Puglia, Santa Croce
di Magliano and Ururi, all falling within the so called Crater area, the area hit
by seismic forces on the 31st October and 1 st November 2002 and part of the
Province of Campobasso. The area under study is internal and prevalently hilly
covering a surface area of 569.73 km 2 with a pre-earthquake resident population
of 27,663 inhabitants. The largest municipality is Larino with 7,078 inhabitants
while the smallest is Provvidenti with a mere 166 resident inhabitants. It would
be pleonastic to note that after the earthquakes hit this area the socio-economic
component of many of these municipalities suffered notable upsets caused by
the temporary transference of many family units to other municipalities or to
new structures specially developed in more secure areas.
The road infrastructure is complexly characterised by routes which are not
very smooth, winding and scarcely efficient, coupled by the absence of a trans-
versal motorway offering a fast Tyrrhenian-Adriatic connection and a regional
motorway accident rate which is equivalent to 1.76% of the complex national
rate. The Molisan railway network consists of 250 km of track, for a large part
obsolete with 33 km running on electricity and 17.5 km of double track. Only
Ripabottoni, Cascalenda and Larino benefit from the rail service (Campobasso-
Termoli line, obsolete and slow); for all the municipalities considered, road
transport is prevalent. The TWIST DRT System serves the hospitals of Larino
and Termoli which are currently lacking a public transport connection. An ini-
tiative that will respond to the lacking infrastructure and to a primary need of
the aged, youth and disabled as well as all those who do not own a private vehi-
cle.
4.4.2 Experimentation
The local implementation of the DRT system in Molise launched from 18 Sep-
tember in the territories of ten municipalities of the "Cratere" area hit by the
seismic events of 31 October and 1 November 2002. This area is especially well
suited to the experimentation, and doubly qualified in terms of the type of ter-
ritories considered under the project, given that it is both a mountain zone with
a low level of transport mobility and an area that was further weakened by the
recent earthquake. The intention of the Regional Bureau of Transportation is to
makes the towns of the "Cratere" area the first to participate in experimentation
of a new mode of public transportation designed for the weaker segments of the
population, with the creation of an operating model that can be reprised in all
the mountain and hinterland areas of Molise.
From Monday to Saturday, mini-buses leave these cities for the medical
centre in Larino during the visiting hours for relatives. Given the social charac-
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
teristics of the territories involved, the experimentation has been aimed at the
socially weaker population segments and those with a lower level of mobility,
such as women, very young children and the elderly, with a particular focus on
the latter, who experience the greatest difficulty of movement. The experimen-
tation in the field was assigned to the CMM regional bus consortium, and spe-
cifically to the Silvestri and Calzolaro bus companies, which already operate
routes in the territory selected for the experimentation.
The service was organised around 2 flexible, interchangeable routes that
passed through the towns involved in the experimentation only when a call was
received, in this way ensuring that the entire area was served while optimising
the route taken to and from the medical centre in Larino. The system for re-
questing the service is activated by users through a Call Centre with an operator
all its own, located at the office of the Silvestri company, which is found in one
of the towns involved in the project, as is the telephone number and the com-
pany itself. By telephoning the Call Centre, up to roughly ten minutes before
departure, the users can reserve a round-trip at the cost of a normal ticket for the
same route: the Call-Centre operator confirms that the request is viable and
enters it in the operating program, "communicating" it to the driver the minibus,
which is connected to the Operations Centre by GPRS, in real time.
For the TWIST experimentation, it was decided to use an online computer-
ised system under which calls are made to the Call Centre, which, in turn,
communicates with the travelling vehicles in real time. This explains why the
call can be made up to 10 minutes before the bus has the option of passing
through the town from which the call originates. The service is managed by a
MICROTPL/ROUTE type dedicated software that makes possible organisation
of the services, the vehicles, the stopping points and the routes, plus the off-line
management of reservations, with transmission of the lists of stops and user
reservations, display of maps providing the geo-positioning of the vehicle for
on-line requests for stops and a variety of statistical output. This service is sup-
ported by an advanced onboard hardware, as each vehicle is equipped with an
onboard computer assisted by dedicated software, a system for tracking and
communications with the Operations Centre, plus display of off-line and on-line
information, together with a two-way GSM/GPRS-GPS radio, complete with
software, antenna and wiring. All the computer equipment was prepared and
supplied by the company MICRODATA s.r.l. of Campobasso.
It is necessary to note that a similar optimisation of the service makes it pos-
sible to reduce the total kilometres travelled, as compared to the traditional ap-
proach, by more than 50%, all the while guaranteeing the necessary coverage.
In order to promote the service, and taking into consideration the limited ex-
pense of the territory and the difficulty involved in reaching the target, a very
simple, direct communication was prepared for all users (delivered through fli-
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
ers and posters), together message, referred to as the "trust" communication,
specifically aimed at the elderly and featuring figures with whom the elderly
come into contact, and who enjoy their trust: physicians, pharmacists and parish
priests. An overview of the communications initiatives carried out would in-
clude: the widespread distribution and posting of fliers and posters, both on the
buses of the transport companies involved and in all locales normally fre-
quented by possible users of the experimental service (parish halls, hospitals,
local healthcare agencies, family doctors' offices, pharmacies, bus terminals,
intermediate stops, town halls, non-profit organisations, centres for the elderly
and for social activities on the part of the target); encounters dedicated to the
subject at town halls and parishes, in the company of the "trusted figures", in
order to set off word of mouth; assisted distribution of communications materi-
als on the bus lines.
4.5 Region Ioannina6, Greece
4.5.1 Description of the Area
The Prefecture of Ioannina, identified the area for the implementation and reali-
sation of the TWIST project, a mountainous region in the Northwest of Greece
with natural resources and a cultural heritage preserved over time. The Prefec-
ture is the third largest province in Greece, covering 50% of the Region of
Epirus, one of the most disadvantaged regions in Europe. The surface area
amounts to 4,990 km2 and, according to the latest demographic survey, the
population has grown to include 170,239 inhabitants. Mountainous like the en-
tire region of Epiruso, Ioannina lies at an average height of 510 m above sea
level, while the average height of the territory is 520 m (above sea level). The
territory is one of the poorest in Europe with an average income of € 10.300 per
capita. The territorial contribution to the national gross domestic product is a
mere 1.40%. The principal economic sectors are: agriculture (8.5%), industry
(21.8%), services (69.7%).
The road infrastructure in relation to the population is 1,307 km per 100,000
inhabitants, while the average cost of local public transport is € 1.38 per km.
Territorial mobility is principally characterised by local buses and KTEL long
distance service buses. From 1952 the owners of the transport companies in the
Greek regions operated individual lines covering the transport needs of the vil-
lages, cities and regions, under the auspices of the local authorities (State Li-
cence). In 1973 by a governmental decree KTEL transformed the structure of its
6 Petropoulos, 2006.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
organisation. KTEL SA is participating in the TWIST project with the general
aim of having an influence on transport with a social target in the vast area of
the Prefecture of Ioannina, acquiring and transferring know-how between the
participating regions and providing a region which fully meets the project ob-
jectives with the TWIST model.
4.5.2 Experimentation
The area selected for the implementation of the TWIST project is the Prefecture
of Ioannina, which covers over 50% of Epiro and is the third largest Prefecture
in Greece. Its territory, among the most disadvantaged in Europe, fully meets
the principal objectives of the project at which KTEL is participating with the
aim of promoting public transport and increasing the social target on the entire
area. KTEL has initiated implementation adapting its transport system directly
within the catchment area. In September 2006 new pick-up points were intro-
duced and presented to the public to satisfy the need for access to other means
of long distance transport.
New routes have been activated and, although only available during specific
hours, they cover an area that until now was rarely served. The beneficiaries are
mainly inhabitants who utilize the bus to and from the Prefecture of Ioannina.
Before implementation of the new transport service, passengers headed for Io-
annina had to organise themselves beforehand in order to reach the nearest
KTEL stop along the busiest Ioannina—Athens—Ioannina line. To date the ser-
vice has enriched the line offering pick-up points in predefined localities at
which the bus only passes on passenger request.
Until introduction of the service, passengers could only board at a KTEL
stop fixed along the route. What has therefore been introduced is the possibility
for passengers to board within fixed localities, but according to their particular
needs by making a simple booking. The KTEL Ioannina—Athens—Ioannina line,
which previously functioned in a standard mode, is now reserved for Demand
Responsive Transport: the passenger who wishes to use the service needs to
timeously inform the local KTEL, at which of the predefined areas they shall be
waiting so that a bus on route is able to stop and fetch them. Currently no addi-
tional cost is imposed for the service.
The service is activated on the E951 line and includes all buses travelling Io-
annina—Athens—Ioannina. The line E951 passes through Anatolia, Bizannzio,
and the town of San Dimitri. As an extension to the DRT destined zones, KTEL
has introduced a stop on the Rio-Antirio bridge notwithstanding the fact that
this area is outside the implementation area of the project. This choice was
based on the importance of serving an ample fascia of passengers. The lines
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
chosen for DRT implementation were based on a transport study undertaken by
KTEL in 2005. A collection of requests made by frequent passengers also pro-
vided important data for defining the service timetable.
The service is active three times a day on the lines to and from Athens: dur-
ing the morning, at midday and in the evening. With the aim of spreading the
service, a publicity campaign utilizing hoardings and leaflets describing the
service, was initially undertaken. The hoardings were put up at the KTEL pick-
up points, while the leaflets were distributed directly among the passengers. The
first phases to follow, without doubt, will be an increase in the number of areas
included in the DRT service. These areas may vary along the route covered by
the Ioannina-Arta, Ioannina-Preveza lines and those to other major cities in the
Epiro region.
Furthermore KTEL presented a proposal to the National Secretariat of In-
formation Technology, for the purchase of hardware to increase the level of
technology in the company fleet in order to satisfy the needs of Demand Re-
sponsive Transport. This proposal was presented within a national competition
for funding reflecting the increasing awareness of state authorities to the DRT
network. The supply of the necessary technological equipment is programmed
for the first quarter of 2007. This will enable KTEL to completely manage the
DRT activities activated in the implementation area and supply services that are
more appropriate and effectively respond to user needs.
4.6 Region Oberhavel, Germany
4.6.1 Description of the Area
The district of Oberhavel is located north of Berlin and covers an area of
1,796.75 km2. About 50% of the area can be classified as a natural reserve and
landscape patrimony. The total population is about 200,000 inhabitants with an
average population density of 111 inhabitants per km 2. Industry in the Ober-
havel district is of little relevance, with the greatest number of industrial build-
ings concentrated in an outlying area. In the Region of Oberhavel 40% of the
workers are employed in the industrial sector, 24% in the service-producing
sector and 12% in public administration. Only 4% still work in agriculture.
Given the concentration of economic activities in the Southern outskirts and the
principally rural characterisation of the North of Oberhavel, there is a consistent
difference between the unemployment rate in the North and the South. Tourism
is increasing, mainly in the rural zone of the region, a recreational area near
Berlin.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
Oberhavel is equipped with a 47 km motorway network, 316 km of federal
road and 174 km of local and state roads. Due to the large distances within the
district, the lack of a good public transport service and social problems that
emerged from the drastic changes after the re-unification of Germany, Ober-
havel, like many other areas in East Germany, is characterised by total motori-
sation. The transport company Oberhavel Verkehrsgesellschaft mbH (OVG)
serves all the bus lines within the district. The passenger train system consists of
peripheral trains in the suburban areas (every twenty minutes) and two express
trains on the commuter line (RE-Regional Express), which cross the Oberhavel
district from North to South. In addition five commuter train lines (RB — Re-
gionalBahn) serve the area. Only the principal line offers a constant service
between 6.00 in the morning and 8.00 at night. Reduced solutions are used to
guarantee school transport. At the weekend, during the holidays and during the
night, the bus service is heavily reduced to the principal routes. The drastic
socio-economic changes, especially in the rural areas, together with the increase
in the cost of public transport necessitate better and more flexible solutions to
guarantee system efficacy. The introduction of demand responsive transport
system will help to maintain and in some cases extend the current level of ser-
vice toward an explicit social target: it will guarantee access to mobility to the
aged, commuters, those without private vehicles, minors, low income groups,
etc in periods and areas of low demand.
4.6.2 Experimentation
Like many other European and German regions the Oberhavel Implementation
area has to solve serious problems of financing public transport services. This
requires more flexible and cost efficient operation solutions intent on keeping
and extending the current service level with an explicit social target. TWIST
prevents a shortening of the routes and a reduction of rides. TWIST activities in
the Oberhavel Area aim to guarantee mobility access to people without private
car access, older people, commuters and minors in times and regions of low
demand. A passenger census in three different periods enabled a specified
analysis of transport demands and the identification of low demand areas. Only
trips which were identified as economically critical in a prior evaluation process
were analysed.
The demand structure analysis showed the usage of each trip within the ex-
isting public transport system. As a result it was possible to separate different
implementation areas within the Oberhavel area and to find adequate alterna-
tives to the current operation models.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
The implemented forms to reach higher flexibility and cost efficiency — es-
pecially in low demand areas — can be performed by operation with small vehi-
cles, the introduction of line oriented or dispersed DRT services and service
provision by subcontractors.
All TWIST activities are fully integrated in the Berlin-Brandenburg public
transport service e.g. corporate design, route numbers and integration in passen-
ger information systems (printed and online timetable information) to ensure a
good user acceptance.
The strategies to guarantee mobility access for the users are the transforma-
tion of line oriented services and the introduction of demand responsive opera-
tion on fixed lines, an operation with vans to reduce operational costs, the use of
subcontractors to reduce personnel costs and optimisation of the connections to
regional and suburban trains to and from Berlin. The booking of rides has to be
made 90 min in advance. The operator (Oberhavel Verkehrsgesellschaft mbH)
offers a 24 hour Call Centre with common telephone access for DRT booking
and passenger information purposes. A prebooking is not required in the trips
involved in "Southern Oberhavel" and the "Hohen Neuendorf Area".
The service provision is supported by different software systems or data-
bases. "IntraCity Rufbus" is a special solution for DRT management. All
booking, routing and disposition activities are based on the already existing
software solution IntraCity Rufbus. To save costs for additional technical ser-
vices it was useful to integrate TWIST services into the existing technical envi-
ronment. As an additional benefit it is possible to use „IntraCity Rufbus" for
DRT controlling and evaluation within the TWIST project.
The interface between the Call Centre, the DRT management software and
the passenger vehicle is performed by the existing Computerized Operational
Control Centre of the operator. All large scale vehicles are equipped with GPS
based units for communication and localization. The usage of small vehicles
and the operation case "subcontractor" will be solved by the implementation of
mobile units. The unit "ATRON 120 MR Mobile" will guarantee localization
and communication with the Operational Control Centre and the DRT booking
system. Additional benefits of the mobile communication unit are ticketing,
printing and penalty management functions.
The start of the test phase in "Northern Oberhavel" was 11.12.2005. The
following table shows the number of trips involved in the TWIST project classi-
fied by route numbers. The trips include a variation of the vehicle size to small
units, the change of the operator towards the introduction of more subcontrac-
tors and the change to DRT-services.
In the "Southern Oberhavel" and "Hohen Neuendorf Area" the implementa-
tion includes the operation with vans to reduce operational costs, the use of
subcontractors to reduce personnel costs and an optimisation of connections to
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
regional and suburban trains to and from Berlin. The main start of the test phase
was 28.05.2006 but some rides on routes 801 and 816 already started on
11.12.2005. All trips of the "Hohen Neuendorf Area" started on 20.08.2006.
The operator offers a 24 hour Call Centre with common telephone access for
passenger information purposes. A pre-booking is not required in the trips in-
volved in "Southern Oberhavel" and "Hohen Neuendorf Area".
4.7 Region South Transdanubian, Hungary
4.7.1 Description of the Area
In Hungary TWIST focus orients on Southern Transdanubian area, a region
comprising three micro regions: Szentlorinc, Sellye and Pecsvarad. Due to legal
problem until the end of the project no TWIST DRT services can be imple-
mented. The region will define requirements that enable a future implementa-
tion with a focus onto the political structures and tasks for authorities and gov-
ernment.
South-Transdanubia is an area rich in natural resources which has been am-
ply promoted during the reorganisation of the Hungarian economy. The agro-
biological wealth of the area, arises from favourable soil and climatic condi-
tions, which constitute a relevant basis for agricultural production. The area is
however characterised by a poor economy and low level of exportation, princi-
pally toward east Europe. Thus economic change toward the service sector and
general development of the infrastructure to reinforce the export potential must
be considered by the regional development strategy as a multiple and decisive
factor for growth. Although the territory is more industrialised than other sub-
urban regions in Europe, the high number of agricultural workers and the scarce
presence of industrial and service sectors is inevitably an index of backward-
ness. The poor transport and communication infrastructure (bad road and rail
quality, lack of motorways, the scanty communication network and backward-
ness in data processing and transmission) are slowing down transformation and
still further reducing the level of exportation activities. Production, the quality
of products and services, and the number of personnel in the sector are low in
this area and activities are principally linked to the city. The average population
density in Southern Transdanubia (711 inhabitants) is significantly lower than
the national average (1,259 inhabitants) and the area is characterised by a vast
number of little villages, among which Baranya is that with the lowest popula-
tion rate. The correlation between geography and transport within the region is
determined by both its macro-regional collocation and its inadequacy to keep
pace with the most important international traffic flow. The region is disadvan-
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
taged due to its distance from the Rhine Rhone Valley super-corridor in West-
ern Europe, from the large scale commercial route connecting CIS countries
along the London—Berlin—Warsaw—Moscow axis, and from Hamburg—Prague/
Paris—Munich—Vienna—Budapest—Belgrade—Bucharest—Istanbul corridors.
4.7.2 A Strategy to Implement DRT Services in Hungary
The South Transdanubian region is not an implementing region in the TWIST
project, however we have discussed the usage of the DRT system in our region
with interested parties (transportation companies, micro regions). Although
interest exists, there are a lot of obstacles and difficulties which have not per-
mitted us to implement the system. Some of our research experiences are listed
below in order to reveal possibilities in the field.
Although the county branches of Volan Coach Transport Company are plan-
ning to decrease the frequency and density of coach services in the hinterland
they are not interested in introducing an investment intensive alternative trans-
port development model. Their fares and state subsidies are almost fully cover-
ing their expenses. Big bus transport companies have monopoly rights for ser-
vicing their area until the year 2013. There is an alternative plan for the entry of
private transport service providers into the market but it is not operational. The
major problem here is that Hungarian laws have maximised the servicing rate
for private coach transport services to 35%.
This is not an attractive perspective for the market players as it offers no op-
portunities for gaining profits and in line with this concept coach services fall in
the regulated market rather than free market category. Today the number of
coach services in Hungary is decreasing. A plan was developed for the 'privati-
sation' of coach services in an attempt to reform the present anomalies of coach
transport. Accordingly the operation (and ownership) of Baranya County Coach
Company should have been transferred to the county seat (Pecs) local govern-
ment free of charge, but this experiment failed.
The Votan Coach Transport Company monopoly in county coach services
prevents the extension of the bus services of Pecs Public Transport Company
into the agglomeration zone. The importance of railway services in the Szent-
Wine micro region (a potential implementing micro-region in the future) which
should maintain its leading role in the system must be underlined. One of the
critical problems in the current transport system is that it does nothing to im-
prove the employment situation in the area. The micro-region's active popula-
tion cannot get jobs because they cannot commute to centres of attraction nor
work in shifts due to the inadequate transport services.
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in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
For these reasons the utilisation of TWIST Programme would be of extreme
importance for Szentlorinc micro-region. The micro-region has prepared a plan
for the implementation of a networked transport system that, adapting to the
micro-region's special features, could significantly improve the efficiency of
intraregional transport services. There is a potential technical method, which
could be applied in this area — especially in the south and south-west areas — due
to the lack of high mountains.
This method is used by the Local Transport Company of Pecs. All company
buses have an onboard GPS device and a duplex USW radio communication
system to maintain contacts with the Call Centre. As operation of the GPRS
interactive and permanent vehicle tracking system would impose high costs on
the company, the interactive passenger information system on the Internet is not
available to the greater public yet. The present communication system maintains
contact between bus drivers and the Call Centre within a 30 kilometre radius.
Using this method, the Public Transport Company of Pecs had plans to extend
its bus service area into the suburban zones of Pecs but the above mentioned
laws prohibit this until the year 2013.
The recent political and budget situation in Hungary is another difficult ob-
stacle for these micro-regions. Lack of investments and development in the area
cannot help solve the problems. Hopefully, the successes of TWIST project
implementations in partner countries and regions will reveal an appropriate
model as a kind of solution for transport development.
4.8 The potentials of DRT as a result of experimentation
As the areas involved show us, experimental areas have mountainous geo-
graphical background. Both data of population and the data of aging rate show
us that the micro-regions involved in the pilot projects have difficult accessibili-
ty. The high aging rate and other experience of the experimentation show that
these elderly people and these areas need this kind of mobility. Most of the mu-
nicipalities involved had not satisfying transport service before.
Concerning previous European experience the flexible transport systems try
to serve low demand areas. The characteristic of these areas is usually different.
We find suburban or rural, mountainous or plain areas. So as we can see the
geographical specialities do not determine the necessity of the use of DRT sys-
tem. But on the other hand — as we could realise — the high rate of aging, the
high number of young people, the low population density, the lack of local fa-
cilities and the high variation of demand can result a claim for flexible transport
solution.
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Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
As it has been mentioned, DRT systems are somewhere between personal
taxi using and the traditional public transportation. The exact place of DRT
depends on many indicators. But as our and previous experimentation shows us,
we have to make a distinction between urban and rural provision areas. The
efficiency in urban areas (for example DRT minibus airport services in Buda-
pest) is much higher than in rural areas (for example in Abruzzo). Parallel the
decreases of efficiency the role of non-for-profit stakeholders (self-govern-
ments) are increasing.
In rural areas the DRT volume is lower than in urban areas, because of the
density of population but on the other hand there is no direct correlation be-
tween the decrease of population density and the using of DRT systems.
One of the most important roles of the DRT systems is that they help people
to reach one point, which can be an attraction centre, a facility or a main trans-
port corridor/system. We think that it is very important that people reach the
main transportation line (for example in Prefecture Ioannina where the main
aim is to get the service Ioannina—Athens—Ioannina) in order to reach the attrac-
tion centres and facilities (medical centre, leisure facilities etc.).
Therefore DRT has three main functions:
— The role of carrying on/off•  The DRT system can help to reach the corri-
dors from the background area.
— Additional services:  When DRT Public transport cannot provide enough
service for example for disabled people, In this case DRT has a special
function to serve a special segment of the whole transportation.
— Replacement role:  In this case DRT has to try to fill in the "black hole",
where public transport absolutely not exists. (Usually DRT can not func-
tion as a totalitarian actor in the whole transportation network.)
But in all models mentioned above it is very important to focus on the coop-
eration with the main public transport provider either it is a bus company or a
railway company.
We can suppose as well that different settlement structures need different
solution and different mixture of transport services. This is why it is difficult to
apply one appropriate solution. As in the implementing region can be seen the
different geographical (natural, infrastructural, societal etc.) circumstances re-
sulted different (DRT) answer to the modelling question among different im-
plementing areas and countries as well.
The good practice can be born after identifying the actors in the rural areas
how have or be able to provide these transportation services with social target.
46

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
5 DRT Controlling and Cost-Effect Analysis
The evaluation of a pilot project supposes the analysis of the cost efficiency.
Although a clear DRT system can not be profitable the application of business
calculations in order to create for instance a Public Private Partnership is neces-
sary.
The basic approach to calculate the economical effects of DRT services com
from the common controlling systems within line oriented bus services. Cost-
benefit analysis of line oriented services can be transformed to a relevant analy-
sis bases on the service performance (operated kilometres) and additional op-
erational indicators.
Besides performance costs have to be taken into consideration seriously.
That includes costs for operation itself including personnel costs, for the vehi-
cles and if necessary for infrastructure like stops or large scale technical invest-
ments (operational control centre etc.).
Like in many cases the public transport operation in rural areas with demand
problems can not be operated with full cost coverage. Therefore cost coverage
can not be expected in the field of DRT services as well.
The theoretical approach to use a cost-benefit analysis for DRT cost control-
ling will not used often, because a detailed separation of different cost elements
is not common in many operating companies. They only survey the costs ap-
peared in the previous operational period.
The cost oriented decision to implement a DRT system bases on a compari-
son of the costs that would have appeared when operating as a fixed line service
with the costs of the DRT service provision. The comparison can easily be per-
formed by using of cost benchmarks for a kilometre of line oriented service and
for a kilometre of DRT service.
5.1 Model Contracts for Subcontractors in DRT Operation
— A German Example
Especially the DRT prices are influenced by the operator models. Often sub-
contractors will be used because they own small scale vehicle that are ideal for
DRT use. In Germany therefore a standardized contract has been designed
whenever it was possible to use it. They would suggest an equal treatment of all
competitors. It is not sure that all taxi and rental car companies accept identical
treatments yet. Despite different commitments, the essential parts of a possible
basic agreement already are in use.
47

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
Basically it is possible to vary in about four different schemes reimburse-
ment in the contractual relationship between municipal transportation compa-
nies (principal) and taxi or rental car companies (agent):
— Refund of Service Kilometres and Additional Stand-by Payment (Without
Guaranteed Benefits):  All effective operated service kilometres are com-
pensated. It is not guaranteed if or how many passenger requests have to
be served at all. Additionally, the agent receives a basic stand-by payment
for every day providing DRT services. With this additional amount the
agent has to ensure his operational readiness during the whole service
hours of the DRT.
— Refund of Service Kilometres (Without Guaranteed Benefits):  This model
is partially established e.g. in the TWIST DRT service of Northern Ober-
havel (Gransee). It is not guaranteed if or how many passenger requests
the agent has to serve. Therefore this only generates benefits in case of a
high level of service kilometre commitment reconsidering the agents'
purposes.
— Refund of Total Kilometres (Service Kilometre and Empty Running; With-
out Guaranteed Benefits):  In this form of contract all operated kilometres
are refunded. This includes both service kilo-metres and empty running
and tends to compensate the lack of a stand-by payment. This mode of
commitment was used at the former existed dial-a-bus service of
Gerswalde. Contrary to this contractual relationship it is recommended to
use of the first commitment model with a payment of service kilometres
and an additional stand-by payment (without guaranteed benefits) to avoid
high total costs or additional deficits in DRT services.
— Refund of Service Kilometres (Guaranteed Benefits):  Agreements based
on service kilometre compensation and a guaranteed amount of rides are
used in the fixed TWIST Services in the district of Oberhavel. This model
is established in case of fixed route services appearing especially in low
demand periods e.g. late evenings, weekends, public or school holidays.
These transports are defined as hailed shared taxi or fixed route taxi as a
bus substitute.
As follows the experiences in German DRT operation using subcontractors
will be concluded to present a practical guideline how to realize Subcontractual
Agreements.
Subject of the Basic Agreement (§  1)
Subject of the basic agreement is the operation of DRT transport services ac-
cording to §42 of the Federal Law for the Transport of Passengers (PBefG). The
principal is licensee of the DRT services and assigns the agent as subcontractor.
48

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
Duties of the Agent (§§  2-5)
The basic agreement includes the duties of the principal and his employees.
It refers to the existing laws and to the prescriptions. Important arrangements
are punctuality and reliability in the service provision. It is also defined in
which way the agent is liable for the property and for the technical equipment of
the principal. Important is that the agent is bound to use the exact route is de-
fined by the principal. Usually this will be the direct way.
Fares, Tickets and Account (§ 6)
Passengers are just allowed to be carried within the common VBB fares and
terms of transport. Only tickets according to the VBB fare are permitted to be
issued. The principal receives the amount which is charged for all issued tickets.
Replacement of Vehicles in Case of Operational Disorders (§  7)
The breakdown of a vehicle of an agent means that the principal himself has
the responsibility to inform the agent and he also has to arrange the replacement
with his own vehicles and employees. If the agent is not able to replace the re-
quired operating resources the principal has the alternative to use his own vehi-
cles and employees. The agent bills the principal for the additional costs.
Commission (§8)
The commission of the agents is not regulated by the basic agreement yet.
The reason is that presently a number of different basic attempts are used. But it
is intended that at least all agents of all dial-a bus services in one area are sup-
posed to be remunerated similarly. Finally, this question will be decided within
the transport market and not because of idealized perceptions with standardized
structures.
Duties of the Principal (§  9)
The duties of the principals are also included in the basic agreement. The
principal has to provide all required technical equipment (PDA, ticket-printer
included clamp, vehicle signage) to the agent. The principal has the responsibil-
ity for the dispatching process of passenger requests and he also transmits the
requests/orders to the vehicles of the agents.
Insurances, Commitment and Adjustment (§§ 10 — 12)
The contract of transport exists between the passenger and the principal.
That is why the agent substitutes the principal in front of the passenger. The
operator of vehicles has to be the agent which is written down in the jurisdiction
code. He releases the principal from all receivables which can be used against
the principal because of his transport service. The agent is in duty to sign up the
casualty insurance and he has to keep up the insurance coverage for himself and
his employees as it is included in legal terms.
49

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
Duration of the Period, Cancellation (§ 13)
The contract lasts for 12 months and is extended to a new schedule period if
the contract is not cancelled within the expiration date which is a month before
the contract will expire. If general regulations change, both parties have the
right to cancel the contract. A cancellation without previous notice is also pos-
sible. The reason for a previous cancellation is the damage of the contractual
obligation or the damage of the interests of one of the contractual partners.
5.2 Potentials for Cost Efficiency
1) The costs of the DRT can be reduced in comparison to the fixed line ser-
vices only if a low demand has to be served.
2)
DRT enables an extension of the service level via timetable-free operation
or additional rides that only operate by a pre-booking. Normally the total
transport performance decreases after the DRT introduction compared to
the substituted fixed line services. This effect can be reported in many
German experiences and results in a cost reduction even if the operator is
the same like before.
3)
The use of cost differences between municipal transportation companies
and private bus or taxi operators open another potential for cost reduction.
The following benchmarks of German cases figure a bandwidth of options
and limits for cost savings when operating by different actors.
4)
Additional cost that appear in DRT operation have to be calculated  (Table
6):  Disposition of DRT rides; additional vehicle equipment, planning and
consultancy costs, etc.
Table 6
Benchmarks for Costs in DRT Operation
Average Costs of Public Transport Operators (Costs per hour in Euro)'
— Municipal or State owned Transport Companies:
18,00 — 26,00
— Private Transport Companies:
13,00 — 18,00
— Taxi Operators:
10,00 — 13,00
Average Costs per DRT Kilometre (East Germany) 2
—Taxi Operator or Private Bus Operator with Subcontract:
0,80 — 1,50
—Municipal or State owned Transport Companies:
1,50 — 2,540
Sources:
I  Bundesministerium ftir Verkehr, Bau- and Wohnungswesen BMVBW (Hrsg.) (1999): Planungs-
handbuch fur den offentlichen Verkehr in der Flache.
2  Own Research and Calculation.
50

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
6 Transferability
Without final statements, establishments and suggestions a pilot project has no
relevance and in this case it is not more just time wasting. On the other hand the
flexible transport solutions even Demand Responsive Systems are very com-
plex. Not only do chiselled way concern to the socio-geographical circum-
stances but also concern it to technical solution. As we realised solving the mo-
bility problems sometimes goes hand in hand with fixed timetable provision
next the clear method of DRT service.
6.1 Applied Models in the TWIST Project — A DRT Service Model
With regard to the implemented DRT systems within the TWIST project the
complexity of possible DRT solutions has been showed clearly. The following
table (Table 7) shows the different DRT aspects in a theoretical overview.
Every other DRT solution can be designed by a variation of the given charac-
teristics.
So as it can be seen on the tables at rural DRT areas — where mostly the
TWIST experimentation is taking place — the model of few to one is the most
appropriate. The "ONE" can be an attraction centre where facilities are avail-
able (like medical centre, leisure centre, Sunday service etc.). On the other hand
the "ONE" point could be a transport corridor (for instance in Prefecture Io-
annina it is the corridor of Ioannina-Athens-Ioannina), which can be either
"normal" traditional public bus transport or railway station or complex transport
nod.
The few transportation modes can be flexible routs with fixed and requested
stops. The rate of these stops depends on several aspects (texture, orographic or
geographic aspects, infrastructure provision).
The experimentation of the TWIST project is performed dominantly in rural
DRT systems which suggest us that the role of non-profit stakeholder is of spe-
cific importance.
As the table shows us, nearly all experimentation includes fixed timetable
services. This is very important for the introduction of a new service especially
for elderly people.
The booking technology shows us two different things. Primarily the call
centre is very important in the service in any time and DRT system should be
based on it. The introduction of the booking procedure trough the Internet is
supposed for some other requests. Secondary it presupposes the Internet provi-
sion of marginal geographical areas — like mountain municipalities — on the
other hand computer/Internet users are needed. Computer users mostly are the
new generation, and the middle-aged of the urban population.
51

•
Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
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6-1

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
6.2.1 The Identification of the Service Area
The size of the service area for DRT services depends on various aspects like
population size, population density, geographical aspects, points of interests in
the service area and mobility behaviour. In Germany for example the dimension
of DRT service areas varies from approx. 10 km 2 to more than 200 km2. The
decision for the optimal area size has to be made with regard to the specific
regional conditions.
The route distances within the areas interact directly with the number and
requested distance of passenger trips. The area size is also related to the avail-
able car pool and to the organisational structure of public transport operators
and taxi companies.
The following indicators give an overview for the estimation of the service
area dimension:
—Distances between the settlements/ communities within the planning area;
—Comparative data for the traffic flows and density in public or individual
transport (Commuter census; School statistics (Students per settlement);
Passenger census in existing public transport lines; etc.);
—Number of points of interest within the planning area (public facilities,
hospitals, shopping facilities, schools, cemeteries, etc.);
—Public transport connections within the planning area.
6.2.2 Fare System
Different experience show that DRT service fares depend on the level of ser-
vice. If the level is comparable to line oriented bus services the fare should be
the same. If there is a higher quality with temporal flexibility and free routing
the fare has to skim this added value with a higher price level that has to be
under the common taxi tariffs. Another option is a basis fare with optional extra
charges for higher service levels.
If there is more than one operator involved in DRT service, it is important to
agree upon a constant and equal fare level including rules for sharing the reve-
nue. In areas with market structures in form of an integrated public transport
service (e.g. many metropolitan areas like Rome, Paris, London, Berlin) there
should be the integration into the common public transport fares.
Basically the following fare models for DRT systems can be classified:
—Non integrated fares: Independent DRT fare without acceptance of any
other public transport tickets
55

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
—Partly integrated fares: acceptance of long term public transport tickets /
commuter passes with or without extra service charges; special DRT fare
for other passengers
—Totally integrated fares: acceptance of all public transport tickets with or
without extra service charges
The integration of DRT fares into the existing integrated public transport
fare systems like in the TWIST case of Germany is a basic condition for user
acceptance and identification of DRT systems as part of the common public
transport network. Integrated fares allow trips with changes to other transport
modes (e.g. line oriented bus, railway, metro, etc.) and support the public trans-
port networks efficiency.
6.2.3 Operational Rules for DRT Services
Operational rules are essential for the provision of DRT services because vari-
ous interests have to be coordinated within the DRT concept. The different ac-
tors in the system are the passengers, the dispatcher / call centre agent, the
driver, the transport operator, etc. Operational rules define the specific respon-
sibilities and rights of each system actor and component. The main aspects of
operational rules can be described as follows:
—Definition of service area and schedule / time concept.
—Restriction of non-scheduled operation by using defined operational hours
and pre-booking terms
—Prohibition parallel services of fixed route busses and DRT services.
—Service integration within the further public transport network including
the handling of connection assurance (Definition of guaranteed connec-
tions, connection points, maximum and minimum waiting times, etc.).
—Routing policy (Definition of deviations from fixed routes; usable roads
under consideration of different vehicle types — turn over facilities, weight
restrictions of roads, etc.) — mostly performed by predefined route options
within the routing software.
—Fare system and tariff integration (see chapter Fare System).
Bundling options of passenger requests (including definition of priorities
in case of conflicts: first come — first served / first passengers with con-
nections to other transport modes than passengers without constraints).
—Obligation of pre-booking and terms of booking (required personnel data,
standing orders, maximum/minimum pre-booking times, etc.).
—Consideration of special requirements (disabled passengers, leisure trans-
port — bicycles, baby carriage, luggage, etc.)
56

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
—Definition of minimum trip length to avoid short trips with high number
of empty running kilometres.
—Cancellation rules.
—Liabilities according to transport contract and further legal aspects.
—Data protection of customer / passenger data.
6.2.4 Licensing Process and Legal Aspects
As performed in the second part the legal framework of public transport and
DRT regulation is different in each European country. In some countries there is
a strong regulation although other countries do not have any legislation for DRT
systems.
A major problem in the licensing process for DRT services is, that the status
of DRT services neither can be classified as scheduled nor as non-scheduled
services using the terms the different national rules and laws of some European
countries (e.g. Germany or Hungary). This results in uncertainties at the licens-
ing authorities, how the rules laws may be applied to those unconventional
transport concepts. In some cases this forbids the implementation of door-to-
door services, since the definition of "scheduled service" comprises the fact that
each trip must have an official stop as its starting or ending point. In other cases
the implementation of DRT service is not possible at all due to strong market
regulation (e.g. Hungary).
To enable equal chances for implementing DRT solutions European wide
legislative rules are required. Only by this the strong social oriented objectives
of the most DRT systems can be fulfilled.
6.2.5 Subcontracting and Liability for Operation
Within the concept phase of a DRT system the liability for the service provision
and the operator itself have to be defined. Often the operator (licensee) is not
the same legal body that will provide the services, because the introduction of
subcontractors may be more cost efficient. The liability for DRT services is
incumbent upon the licence of the DRT concession and not upon the subcon-
tractor.
Basically DRT services may be performed by all transport, taxi and rental
car companies if they fulfil all required legal and operational constraints. In taxi
and rental car companies labour / personnel costs are often lower than in mu-
nicipal public transport companies. Taxi companies are especially suited for the
operation of DRT services in low demand rural areas, because they usually own
57

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
This specific object may be achieved through the possibility to replicate the
in all European regions — especially in the eastern part of the EU, in the new
member states — and to develop further actions at a EU level by the spreading of
best practices.
Testing results will provide a new way to organise and manage transport
services in disadvantaged areas, granting mobility — as a common right of hu-
man being.
The regions participating in the TWIST project show a lack of services and
infrastructural balance in the rural and mountain areas. The growing isolation of
the population, mostly represented by old people, is the cause and the effect of
the progressive abandonment of these territories. As a consequence, the re-
sources assigned to local transport services have been reduced, inducing the
population to use their own means of transport and causing higher levels of
traffic, exhaust emissions and road accidents. Starting from the survey of the
supply and demand of the public transport in the territories of the pilot projects,
the TWIST project implemented the experimentation of different on-demand
bus services. A model to organize and evaluate these services had been elabo-
rated and transferred to other regions with similar characteristics.
6.3.1 Transferability for the European Community
Adequacy to EU priorities as a need that TWIST can be a transferable solution
to other EU member states and regions. The EU considers sustainability as a
superior principle to which community policy (including environmental and
transport policy) should comply with. Next sustainability to available all the
services and goods to everybody is another important priority. In order to reach
it we have to take into consideration how the TWIST project fulfilled the
guidelines below.
Accessibility means that anyone should have reasonable access to places,
goods and services. This criteria is especially important at rural, mountainous
and disadvantages areas where TWIST has been implemented.
Concerning justice transport should meet the demands of various social
groups and generations. As the example shows us the young generation can
achieve easier these goods than elderly people. TWIST in this field has a goal
that the project provide in high aging rated area.
Health and security mean that transport systems should be planned and oper-
ated making no harms for health and personal security. Regarding the means of
transport in experimentation areas of TWIST this guideline has been fulfilled.
Education and involvement mean that people and communities should com-
pletely be involved into transport related decision processes. DRT system and
60

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
TWIST are a perfect example that in case that people and communities are not
involved in it, could not exist.
Integrated planning requires various experts should be involved from differ-
ent areas — environmental protection, heath, energy management and urban
planning should be involved into transport planning. This criteria is highly pre-
sented at TWIST transnational and internal national meetings where Best Avail-
able Technology and its representatives were appearance.
Transport system should efficiently use available land and other resources
while keeping the diversity of the living world and biology. Sustainability
guidelines refer to the environmental integration as well where transport should
make no harms for public health, global climate and essential ecologic proc-
esses. On the other hand — as ecological footprint theory says — there is an area
belonging to energy and material consumptions as well as the waste emission
which can either produce or absorb them. Using buses with alternative fuel —
either in Marche region or in Oberhavel — TWIST project is going on this way.
Definition of the general guidelines and transmission of the project outputs
to the Authorities in charge to plan the transport services it can be established
that TWIST project carry a good practice as a solution for elderly people and
people who live in sparsely area either in mountainous or in plain territories.
6.3.2 The most Important Aspects of Transferability
As it has been mentioned before, the model of TWIST project is a special DRT
system, because it has been realised in rural, disadvantaged mostly mountainous
area.
Flexible transport appeared in 1980's in Europe. This phone centred system
was Dial-a-bus or Rufbus systems. Parallel with the development of technolo-
gies this kind of flexible facilities developed as well. In 2000's telemetric based
DRT experimentations appeared.
Compared with other experimentation (as SAMPO, SAMPLUS etc) the goal
of the TWIST focused around the highlighted social aspects that harmonize
with several EU priorities and guidelines (e.g. accessibility, sustainability).
Using the process of learn-adapt/convert-transfer/disseminate the main result
of the TWIST project is that it can show appropriate way low demand, diver-
gent zones and new member states — on their national, regional and local levels
— providing model which allow elderly and other disadvantaged people to reach
"normal" mobility.
In order to collect experience, to formulate considerations toward transfer-
ability of TWIST, we have to mention the aspects below:
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
—Legal aspects;
—Ideal service model(s);
—High variation of provision;
—Actors involved;
—Estimation of service parameters.
Concerning the legal aspects there are few common thesis on national level.
Like in Greece as well as in Germany there are no clear definitions of DRT
services on national level. But in Germany on regional level the claim for provi-
sion in low demand periods appears. In Italy in Abruzzo — which is a flagship in
this filed — the regional legislation focuses on mountain communities as disad-
vantaged areas.
The worst example is Hungary (which example makes us pay attention to-
wards the new member states) where there are no possibilities for the participa-
tion of private sector in transportation. Also in Hungary big bus transport
companies (Public Transport Providers) have monopoly rights for services until
2012. The alternative private transport participation is allowed within 35%
which is not an attractive perspective because there isn't profit possibilities
therefore in this sector there are not free market but regulated market.
Concluded the legal aspects the following transferability can be drowned for
other experiments:
—The introduction of DRT definition and classification into legislation (on
regional level) is very important. It promotes the experimentation
(Abruzzo, Oberhavel) but probably a more chiselled way is needed.
—New EU member states have legislation problems in the experimentation
of DRT system. It also means that in these states EU priorities in connec-
tion with mobility, accessibility and sustainability do not emerge.
—In order to transferability if the variation of provision (like school, medi-
cal visits, tourism services, work, Sunday services) it is necessary to col-
lect all the reasons of transportation. In this case examples help to other
experimentation areas in the fields of planning, efficiency and transfer-
ability.
—In a DRT system it is very important question that the actors should be in-
volved in facilities. It is because DRT system can not operate with one
stakeholder. Of course circumstances depend on legal background.
—Concerning TWIST (and other) DRT experience, a DRT system is not
suitable for profit activities. At least the next DRT provider (who can be
for instance a volunteer) local government is needed (e.g. Abruzzo). On
the other hand cooperation with other/main Public Transport Provider is
unavoidable (KTEL). Other organizations as actors or participants can be:
62

Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
But there is a reciprocal ratio which shows that low population density does
not go hand in hand with low use of DRT which means in number that disad-
vantaged area with population density of 30 resident/km2 has minimum of 4
flexible passenger/day during higher population area (Oberhavel) has 4 passen-
ger/day as well.
There is cohesion in the Italian implementing area. Next equal population
density when the rate of aging above 200% the use of DRT system at least dou-
bles (8) than in normal rate areas.
The know how is not shown either by regular mobility index or by the rating
of preference of the LPT.
All aspects mentioned above support that especially elderly people require
DRT solutions (Table 9).
7 Conclusion
Experience from the TWIST project suggest that for financial and scheduling
reasons DRT services do not aim to be dominant public transport providers in a
market, but are regarded as vital suppliers of services where conventional solu-
tions are untenable, for example low demand areas, special transport services
and where social exclusion is evident with low number of potential subsidy.
Old-aged people, disabled social groups and individuals without cars may have
extreme significance in servicing transport demands within the framework of
DRT systems and as the goal of TWIST showed us.
Also TWIST experience has shown (on one side Abruzzo region on the other
side South-Transdanubian region) that the more regulated the legal environ-
ment, the less conflict there is between DRT and other public transport modes.
It seems in terms of technologies for DRT services, the level of telematics
support available at the local level too. The Best Available Technology is very
important for a success experimentation. Regarding mobile phone and other
ICT technologies, the telematics solutions for DRT are highly transferable to
rural and to disadvantaged areas making the access to telecommunication ser-
vices easier and cheaper.
Intermodality needs an adequate environment. Some fixed stops are needed
by all means for interconnections. Services need fixed starting time and a defi-
nite starting point for departure. Completely circular schemed flexible routes
very rarely prove to be viable in the long run.
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Erdősi, Ferenc - Gál, Zoltán - Gipp, Christoph - Varjú, Viktor: Path Dependency or Route Flexibility
in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of TWIST Project. Pécs: Centre for Regional
Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2007. 68 p. Discussion Papers, No. 59.
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BENKONE LODNER, Dorottya (ed.) (1988): Environmental Control and Policy: Proceedings of
the Hungarian—Polish Seminar in the Theoretical Problems of Environmental Control
and Policy
OROSZ, Eva (ed.) (1988): Spatial Organisation and Regional Development Papers of the 6 th
Polish—Hungarian geographical Seminar
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KUKELY, GyOrgy (2006): Rehabilitating the Brownfield Zones of Budapest
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SZOBOSZLAI, Zsolt (2006): Idealistic Vision or Reality? Life-long learning among
Romany ethnic groups
No. 54 BARTA, Gyorgyi (ed.) (2006): Hungary — the New Border of the European Union
No. 55 GAL, Zoltan (2006): Banking Functions of the Hungarian Urban Network in the Early
20th  Century.
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