Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75.
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
CENTRE FOR REGIONAL STUDIES
OF HUNGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DISCUSSION PAPERS
No. 75
The Relation Systems
of Metropolitan Areas
Comparative Analyses of Capital City Regions by the Example of Budapest,
Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya in Hungary and of Paris and Sens in France
by
Gabriella BARÁTH
Series editor
Gábor LUX
Pécs
2009
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75.
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
This paper is a shortened version of the PhD thesis of the author that has been
finished in 2008. The paper summarises the main theoretical and empirical
results of the related research activities. These investigations could not have
been undertaken without the valuable help of my two professors,
Prof. Viktória Szirmai DSc and Prof. Françoise Plet HDR.
ISSN 0238–2008
ISBN 978 963 9899 21 6
© Gabriella Baráth
© Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
2009 by Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Technical editor: Ilona Csapó. Language editor: Gábor Lux.
Printed in Hungary by Sümegi Nyomdaipari, Kereskedelmi és Szolgáltató Ltd., Pécs.
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75.
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
CONTENTS
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 5
1.1 The issue of the study ........................................................................................... 5
1.2 The major objectives of the study ......................................................................... 6
1.3 Hypotheses ........................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Sample areas ......................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Methods .............................................................................................................. 11
2 Theoretical
foundations .............................................................................................. 13
2.1 Globalisation and urban development ................................................................. 13
3 A brief introduction of the research sites .................................................................... 18
3.1 Székesfehérvár .................................................................................................... 18
3.2 Tatabánya ........................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Sens ....................................................................................................................
21
4 The results of empirical researches ............................................................................ 24
4.1 Economic relations ............................................................................................. 24
4.1.1 Site selection – with special regard to the immigration of foreign
capital ventures ........................................................................................ 24
4.1.2 Company centre – sub-centre relations ................................................... 28
4.1.3 The territorial structure of the consumption of economic actors ............. 28
4.1.4 Supplier
relations..................................................................................... 32
4.1.5 Labour
migration ..................................................................................... 34
4.2 Social relations ................................................................................................... 34
4.2.1 Migration
processes ................................................................................. 34
4.2.2 The spatial structure of residential consumption ..................................... 40
4.2.3 Cities and their inhabitants: integration, satisfaction, participation ......... 41
5 New
scientific
results ................................................................................................. 42
References ........................................................................................................................ 46
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75.
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
List of figures
Figure 1 The steps of selecting the sample areas .......................................................... 11
Figure 2 The geographical location of our research sample areas in Hungary ............. 19
Figure 3 The geographical location of the research sample areas in France ................ 22
Figure 4 The distribution of major employers by different economic sectors .............. 23
Figure 5 Changes in the number of operating businesses between 1996
and 2003 ......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 6 The number of firms immigrating into Bourgogne region from, Île-de-
France and Rhône–Alpes regions and the number of firms out-migrating
to these regions (between 1996 and 2001) ..................................................... 26
Figure 7 The consumption of economic actors in Hungarian cities ............................. 29
Figure 8 The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County
in other counties by county ............................................................................ 30
Figure 9 The share of services used by foreign and Hungarian firms in Budapest ...... 31
Figure 10 The share of services used in Budapest between the firms of Tatabánya
and Székesfehérvár ........................................................................................ 32
Figure 11 The geographical dimensions of supplier activities ....................................... 33
Figure 12 The ratio of labour migrants out of the total employees living in same
locality (2001) ................................................................................................ 35
Figure 13 The ratio of economically active population working in the Paris region ...... 36
Figure 14 Changes in the population number between 1990 and 2001 .......................... 37
Figure 15 New results ..................................................................................................... 43
List of tables
Table 1
The number of cities with over 500 thousand inhabitants grouped by
city size and continents (1975, 2000, 2015) ................................................... 15
Table 2
Factors of agglomeration, the elements of relation systems in urban areas
as specified by the cited scientific literature .................................................. 16
Table 3
The elements of the relation systems investigated by our research ................ 18
Table 4
The number of firms immigrating and out-migrating from Paris between
2000 and 2005 ................................................................................................ 25
Table 5
The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County
outside Yonne County by county and service sector ..................................... 30
Table 6
Changes in the population of the city of Sens and its urban area between
1990 and 1999 ................................................................................................ 38
Table 7
Changes in the population of our investigated cities and their urban area
between 1990 and 1999 .................................................................................. 39
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1 Introduction
1.1 The issue of the study1
Our study analyses changes undergoing in the relation system of metropolitan
areas2 and the issues of social and economic relations arising from the restructur-
ing of spatial and regional disparity systems.
Global-scale economic, social and political integration, the processes of global
urbanisation, globalising urban networks and the transformation of their sub-
systems are increasing the importance of large cities and their metropolitan areas.
They are squeezing out the earlier systems of spatial relations having shaped up
behind nation-state boundaries in the past. All these trends are also manifested by
the vigorously increasing importance of cities (Barta, 1998; Cséfalvay, 1999;
Enyedi, 2001, 2003, 2006; Knox, 2002).
The spatial structuring force of cities and metropolitan areas is leaving its
marks on the relation system of cities and their urban areas as well. The earlier
hierarchical, mono-centric and core-periphery3 based spatial disparity model of
urban areas is now in transition (Ascher, 1995; Baron et al., 2005; Barta –
Beluszky, 1999; Enyedi, 2003; Merlin, 2003; Mirloup, 2002; Szirmai et al. 2007).
The social, economic and environmental impacts of the newly structured and
urbanised regions (Enyedi, 2001, 2003) will reconfigure the system of earlier
spatial disparities (Beckouche et al. 1997; Marcuse, 1989; Szirmai, 2004). Besides
(and partly instead of) monocentric and hierarchical schemed relations, horizontal
cooperation models based on the functional division of labour and networked
1 This study summarises the results of the author’s PhD dissertation titled ’The Relation Systems of
Metropolitan Areas – Comparative Analyses in Capital City Regions by the Examples of
Budapest, Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya in Hungary and of Paris and Sens in france’. The disserta-
tion was written under a double supervised doctoral programme at the University of Pécs Faculty
of Business and Economics Doctoral School of Regional Policy and Economics and at the Uni-
versity of Paris, Doctoral School of Social Sciences. The consultants were Prof. Dr. Viktória
Szirmai and Prof. Dr. Françoise Plet. The present study, beyond drafting the major theoretical
findings, focuses on presenting the results of empirical research.
2 The study defines urban areas as territories with functional social and economic relations, while
urban areas being in key positions by their population number and functions and linked to
European and global urban networks, are described by the terms of metropolitan area, urban area
and metropolitan space.
3 The core-periphery model is used in the analysis on the basis of Szirmai (2007, 741) from a socio-
geographical and sociological perspective. In the socio-geographical sense, core means a spatial
centre of a certain geographical unit while periphery means the outskirts of the given
geographical unit. Between core and outer peripheries there may be variation by historical
perspective as well as economic, infrastructural, functional and social differences or disparities. In
the sociological sense, core and periphery are expressing the social status of the population living
within the same geographical space. In the ‘traditional’ core-periphery model the highest position
in the social ranking hierarchy is taken in the core area.
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organisational systems will operate as the driving engines of spatial organisation
(Fujita – Thisse, 1997; Mirloup, 2002).
The restructuring of the internal relation system of metropolitan areas (Berger,
2004; Béhar – Estèbe, 1998; Burdack – Dövényi – Kovács, 2004), the discon-
tinuation of the traditional hierarchical model of settlement relations, the past
inherited and new dependencies and autonomies, the co-operation and spatial
integration systems built on the functional division of labour, the reorganised and
restructuring disparities are all integrating metropolitan spaces into complex ter-
ritories bound together by several ties. This process creates dynamic territories
and settlements of urban areas as well as backward settlements lagging behind
dynamically developing regions.
Changes in relation systems have various concrete social and economic out-
comes (for example the emergence of Foreign Direct Investment, the restructuring
of the economy, the restructuring of jobs, changes in labour migration trends, and
the reshaping of social structure) which make their impacts in settlements of dif-
ferent social and economic development level; therefore, in settlements with vary-
ing skills of accommodation.
The concrete background of social and economic development, the position in
urban hierarchy, the administrative, social, economic and institutional functions,
the historically formed roles are all determining a settlement’s receptivity attitude,
as well as its integrative and accommodation skills. From several aspects they
may influence both the processes of urban development and the autonomous and
special features of the individual components. Local socio-spatial and economic
context also specifies what impacts can be triggered and to what extent. The rela-
tionship between impacts and receptivity attitude influences economic and social
outcomes of these relations as well.
Thus, the changing relations of metropolitan areas and the reconfiguration of
spatial disparities are ruled by complex interactions. Their research is very im-
portant as it highlights the necessity of creating a different strategy from the pre-
sent and emphasises the importance of thinking in regional dimensions and of
cooperation.
1.2 The major objectives of the study
The primary objective of our study is investigating the relations of two metropo-
lises situated in a diverse social and economic environment as well as analysing
the interrelations of central cities and their urban environment which depend on
the impact forces mediated by the central city. The changing relation systems of
metropolitan areas, the reconfiguration of regional spatial disparities and their
major outcomes are analysed by the examples of Budapest, the capital city of
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Hungary, and Paris, a Western European capital. In the case of Budapest, we have
investigated the city’s relation system with Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, while
in the case of Paris, the city’s relations established with the city of Sens were the
objects of our research. Our research provided an opportunity for comparing a
Western capital city with an East Central European one; a global with a globalis-
ing metropolitan area; and for a scientific research of the relation system of cities
in capital regions selected by predefined criteria.
The major objectives of the study:
1. One of the major objectives of the study was to assess the economic and so-
cial relation system of central capital cities and selected cities in their region and
to analyse the elements of these relations.
When examining economic relations, the site selection policy of the economic
actors of our investigated cities with special regard to the immigration of global
economy was investigated. The characteristic features of the spatial location of
company centres and sub-centres were also identified, which served as an indica-
tor of the existence of various corporate functions with the quality of local and
urban facilities necessary for their provision. The system of inter-firm supplier
relations was also mapped with the indicators of relations and labour migration
defined by the spatial structure of the consumption of economic actors and of the
utilisation of services. The analysis of social relations is in strong correlation with
the economic relations to be revealed, comprising the spatial restructuring of
population and the investigation of residential migrations.
2. The other main objective of our study was assessing the impacts arising
from the relation systems established between central capital cities and the cities
selected for our research.
When examining economic relations, the structural features of urban econo-
mies changed by the impact of the economy of capital cities, as well as the roles
of economic sectors (industrial and tertiary), the relationship of global and local
economies, and the autonomous and large city centre-dependent development
elements of urban economies, were investigated.
The analysis of social impacts encompasses changes in the relationship be-
tween the residential area and place of work of citizens living in our area of re-
search (or in its neighbour cities) as well as the outmigration of labour force, the
changes of employment structure and the relationship between cities and their
inhabitants. The analysis of social impacts implies the problems of dependencies
and autonomies.
3. The third major objective of our study was investigating the impacts of new
spatial formations on economy and urban development.
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Under this research objective we studied how the transformation of urban area
networks, modernisation, social and economic integration, the different new de-
mands of urban development create inner socio-spatial disparities in urban areas
and whether they are encouraging spatial equalisation or generating new types of
disparities.
Our study interprets social and economic outcomes as processes having been
generated by the reconfigured spatial formations. Within this context the forma-
tion of social and economic cooperation systems, the re-creation of socio-spatial
disparities, the increase of social conflicts and the emerging demands of urban
development are examined.
4. Our last research objective is uncovering the different reasons standing be-
hind the relationship between capital cities and the selected cities; historical de-
terminations, the identification of global economic and social processes, the rec-
ognition of similarities and differences arising from Western and Eastern Central
European location.
1.3 Hypotheses
1) In the context of capital city and the selected cities, the analyzed factors vary
by country and urban settlement type (traditional city, new city) intensity.
2) Developing into a metropolitan area makes up new territorial structures which
expand the earlier hierarchical core-periphery relation system by introducing a
new scheme of inter-settlement relations based on horizontal cooperation and
the functional division of labour. These new spatial processes are emerging in
the context of our investigated capital cities and the cities in their regions as
well.
3) Thus, in the urban areas of our research the new spatial relations create a new
system of disparities and they are changing core-periphery relations as well.
This process creates new urban area sub-centres within the metropolitan area.
Their most important feature is that they are bound by several ties to the urban
centre and they are capable for performing certain functions; they have the
ability to increase their role in spatial organisation and give a greater dynamic
force to the development of their environment. The cities involved in our re-
search are presumably such kind of metropolitan area sub-centres.
4) The emergence of multidirectional cooperation-based relation systems, the
functional division of labour among settlements and their outcomes such as
territorial specialisation and spatial integration – according to our hypothesis –
reconfigures the earlier hierarchical inter-settlement relation dominated
scheme of spatial disparities.
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5) Our study investigates the relation system of metropolitan areas which have
some dependant and some autonomous elements. Our paper is built on the hy-
pothesis that the economic and social relation system of central capital cities
and (selected) cities in their region affect the autonomous and dependant ele-
ments of urban development on a varying scale.
6) The new spatial relations resulting from the growth into a metropolitan area
scaled size are organised rather on functional than administrative basis. For
this reason it can be assumed that the relation systems of capital city regions
and their impacts are surpassing the administrative boundaries of capital city
agglomeration zones.
7) Another of our hypotheses is that the space-forming and urban development
impacts of capital cities are not primarily dependant on the population number
based size of the selected cities.
1.4 Sample areas
The research areas were selected on the basis of two major groups of criteria. On
the one hand, by taking all quantifiable parameters into account, and on the other
hand, on the basis of non-quantifiable but urban function related factors.
The selection criteria were as follows:
One of the starting hypotheses of our research was that the relation systems
of capital city regions and their impacts are surpassing the administrative
boundaries of capital city agglomeration zones. For verifying this hypothe-
sis we considered very important to select sample cities from outside of the
agglomeration zone of Budapest and Paris.
The findings in the professional literature also pointed out that the investiga-
tion of the relation systems of metropolitan areas and of their impacts can
hardly be carried out on the basis of a wide-scale factor group analysis.4 In
case of all investigated cities the access time of the capital city from each
selected city was a common key element and parameter (Aguilera – Mignot,
2003; Belliot, 2006; Giband, 2003; Gilli, 2002; Hardi, 2002; Mirloup, 2002;
Mokos, 2004; Potentials for…, 2005). For this reason, when selecting the
4 1. Changes in population number, migration processes, suburbanisation; 2. Housing, changes in
housing conditions; 3. The development of the basic infrastructure of settlements; 4. The devel-
opment of residential infrastructural supply; 5. Transport connections; 6. Labour migration; 7.
Commuting (place of work-school); 8. The relations of economic organisations in general; 9. Site
selection; 10. Supplier relations; 11. The relations of company headquarters and sub-centres; 12.
The consumption of economic actors, the utilisation of services; 13. The outsourcing of different
functions, residential consumption; 14. Changes in social structure; 15. Relations of research in-
stitutes.
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sample cities, an equal travel time to each city from the capital was a very
important selection criterion into the sample. The access time of 60 minutes
was specified also by following the guidelines of the relevant scientific lit-
erature (Grandwaux, 1991; Potentials for…, 2005).5
Another limitation criterion of the sample areas was the role of the so-called
‘satellite’ (Hungarian) or ‘sentry’ (French) cities had in functional urban ar-
eas at the time of an earlier investigation (Gilli, 2003a; Közép… 2006). By
applying this filter the number of potential cities in the French capital city
region could fairly precisely be reduced.6
Labour migration towards capital cities was another quantifiable selection
criterion of the research area. Scientific literature pointed out that the attrac-
tion of labour force is one of the key elements in analysing the relation sys-
tems of metropolitan areas.7 On the basis of the relevant parameter values in
Hungary, three cities (Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Gyöngyös with a 7–
10% labour migration ratio to the capital city among local labourers), while
in France, five cities (Chartres, Évreux, Compiègne, Montargis and Sens: 7–
10%) were eligible for investigation.
For a further limitation of the number of potential sample cities we exam-
ined the differences in their role. Cities of differing type i.e. traditional and
so-called new cities are presumably accommodating the impacts of capital
cities in a different way. In the capital city region of Budapest the two dif-
ferent city types best represented by Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, two
cities with different historical and urbanisation background but pursuing a
similar strategy of urban development since the regime change of the 1990s
(Keune, 2001).
In France, only one city could be involved into the research project, selected
on the basis of the assumption that the spatial formation and the urban de-
velopment impacts of capital cities are not primarily dependant on the size
(population number) of the selected cities and their urban areas. To verify
this of all the potential French sample areas (due to its largely differing
5 On the basis of the above indicators there were five cities which were eligible for investigation in
the capital city region of Budapest (Tatabánya, Székesfehérvár, Gyöngyös, Kecskemét and Duna-
újváros), while in the French capital city region there were far more suitable cities with favour-
able geographical location (motorways, good public road and railway connections) with 60 min-
utes of travel time from the capital city (Gilli, 2003a; Grandvaux, 1991).
6 Chartre, Dreux, Evreux, Vernon, Compiègne, Château-Thierry, Sens and Montargis.
7 The investigation of labour migration to capital cities in both countries was carried out on the
basis of census data. In Hungary (2001) we analysed the ratio of commuters working in other
county than their residential place out of the total employees of the cities involved in our research
which by extending with the census data of cities of county rank was sufficient for evaluating la-
bour migration to the capital city. In France (1999) analysing the ratio of labour out-migrants into
another region out of the total number of employees served as a basis for comparisons.
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population number from Hungarian sample cities), the city of Sens proved
to be the most suitable one for our investigation.
The selection criteria (similar geographical location, accessibility, functional
urban area roles, an identical ratio of labour migration to the capital city, same
type of urban settlement with different population number) were fully met by the
cities of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya in Hungary and by the city of Sens in
France (Figure 1).
Figure 1
The steps of selecting the sample areas
Note: The figure indicated in the bracket shows the number of eligible areas for the specified re-
quirements.
Source: Author’s construction.
1.5 Methods
The preparatory investigations of our study involved using a wide scale of in-
struments applied in social science research such as methods applied in social
geography, sociology, regional science and regional statistics.
Of all these, the first thing we did was the collection, processing and analysis
of the relevant international and Hungarian literature, planning and development
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documents. Our research in France had a big role in finding the literature cited
here.8
Besides the theoretical foundation of the research concept the analysis of proc-
esses in the French research sites (site selection factors, company centre – sub-
centre relations, labour migration, and social inequalities) was also partly built on
the processing of French literature.
The methods of empirical investigations can be summarised as follows:
Statistical data analysis.9 Statistical data analyses are linked to the empirical
chapters such as site selection factors, company centre – sub-centre rela-
tions, other relations of economic actors, labour migration and the explora-
tion of social inequalities.
The author’s own empirical research10 concerning the urban development
impact of the global economy, the relation system of suppliers, the con-
sumption of economic actors and the structure of the labour force.
Other empirical researches were carried out on the basis of a thematic ques-
tionnaire survey within the framework of a PhD research project by Central
Transdanubian Research Group West Hungarian Research Institute CRS
HAS. These research projects11 gave us access for investigating Hungarian
and French research fields and for preparing in-depth and auxiliary inter-
views linked to our own studies.
8 The research project in France between 2004 and 2007 was funded by a bilateral cooperation
programme between HAS-CNRS (CRS HAS WHRI CTRG, HAS Sociological Research Institute
– UMR 7533 LADYSS, Université de Paris8; consultants: Prof. Dr. Viktória Szirmai, Prof. Dr.
Françoise Plet). The research projects implemented under the cooperation programme are as fol-
lows: Metropolitan Inequalities and Social Conflicts and Living Manners, Lifestyle- and Types of
Space Utilisation in Our Contemporary Urban Areas) The co-funder of research programme was
a research grant coordinated by the French Institute of Budapest and sponsored by the French
Government.
9 The investigation of the Hungarian and French research sites in all cases was carried out by
analysing the latest statistical data which enabled us for making comparisons. The majority of
statistical resources originated mostly from the 1999 census in France and from the 2001 census
in Hungary.
10 1. The research titled ’The Socio-spatial Impacts of the Global Economy’ under the Social
Science Research Programme of National Importance. 2004–2005. 2. Questionnaire Survey of
Firms employing a staff of more than 50 in Tatabánya and Székesfehérvár, Spring 2007.
11 1. Research titled ‘Metropolitan Inequalities and Social Conflicts’ funded by a bilateral coopera-
tion programme between HAS-CNRS 2004–2005; 2. Research titled ‘Living Manners, Lifestyle-
and Types of Space Utilisation in Our Contemporary Urban Areas’ funded by a HAS-CNRS bi-
lateral cooperation programme 2006–2007. 3. Research titled ‘Urban Areas. Socio-spatial Ine-
qualities and Conflicts. The Socio-spatial Factors of European Competitiveness’. National Re-
search and Development Programme 2004–2007. (Consortium lead organisation: HAS
Sociological Research Institute. Project leader: Prof. Dr. Viktória Szirmai; CRS HAS WHRI
CTRG consortium member).
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Re-analysing some partial results of the research projects of the Central
Transdanubian Research Group West Hungarian Research Institute CRS
HAS12 was also a significant data source contributing to our research
encompassing the local, regional and regional roles of Székesfehérvár and
Tatabánya, the policies of site selection, other relations of economic actors,
the issues of labour migration and the trends of social inequalities.
At the overall level, the study is based on 8 research projects carried out be-
tween 2000 and 2008. The number of single interviews prepared under this task is
70 (30% of the interviews prepared were conducted in the French research area).
Beyond this, our study utilises the results of two questionnaire surveys as well.
2 Theoretical foundations
2.1 Globalisation and urban development
Globalisation affects urban development in several ways. It has such impacts as
the increasing number of population, its regional differences, social inequalities,
increasing social conflicts and the changing role of urban settlements. The forma-
tion of global urban networks and their sub-systems, the changing territorial
structure and internal relation system of urban areas, and the increasing demand
for the governance of urban areas also belong to this category. These impacts are
felt in the different parts of the world (on different continents, in advanced and
developing regions) with different intensity.
Regarding the impacts of globalisation on European urban development, our
study analyses three factors within the scope of its own problem areas.
The first issue is the change of population which is regarded the most decisive
factor of urban development. Its analysis is quite well reflective of the geographi-
cal differences of urban development. Besides the increasing population of urban
settlements, the changing functions of cities are an important factor which also
marks the place of cities and their urban areas in the global urban hierarchy and in
global urban networks. The historical presentation of metropolitan theories is a
good opportunity for tracing the major changes. This is a good way to understand
how these cities, and through them, functions could and can join global urban
networks. Of the European cities, our study considers defining and analysing the
12 1. Research titled ‘The Socio-economic Relation systems of Tatabánya and Its Environment (Tata
and Oroszlány’ sponsored by PICS international comparative research programme. 2000–2001. 2.
Research titled ‘The Site Selection Strategies of Multinational Firms in Székesfehérvár and Fejér
County-Aspects of Increasing Competitiveness’. 2001–2002; 3. Research titled ‘Spatial-Regional
Relation Systems of Székesfehérvár’. 2004.
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position and role of Paris and Budapest within the global urban hierarchy as an is-
sue of high importance.
And finally the impact analyses of the transformation of the territorial structure
and relation system of urban areas are basing and marking up the future lines of
empirical researches.
The theoretical foundations of our empirical research can be summarised as
follows:
1) The analysis of the geographical differences has pointed out that in the
European metropolitan areas facing the problems discussed in our study
(including the metropolitan space of Budapest and Paris) a significant in-
crease of population cannot be expected (Table 1). The territorial restruc-
turing of population within these urban areas is expected to be the largest
change in this aspect, which is in close correlation with the processes of
suburbanisation and peri-urbanisation.
2) On the basis of the historical overview of urban theories it can be stated
that besides the categorisation of cities by the number of inhabitants, the
awareness of the other social and economic factors of urban development
and the complex evaluation of metropolitan functions are also necessary for
understanding the development processes of cities. The scientific literature
emphasised among economic factors the primary importance of company
centres, global capital and commodity markets, global management func-
tions, advanced level business services high, the presence of international
media organisations and the role of telecommunication and air traffic hubs.
The overview of urban theories also highlighted that the economic proc-
esses determining global urban hierarchy have several social impacts, fac-
tors (increasing social inequalities, social polarisation social conflicts, the
restructuring of employment structure) missing from the earlier theses of
the overviewed theories.
3) The global territorial, social and economic processes influencing metropoli-
tan development are also present in the European metropolitan system, and
they are expressing the new elements of the development of urban areas
and of the spatial processes of metropolitan development in a differentiated
intensity and way.
4) Differences in the social and economic development of cities in their link-
ages to urban networks, in the integration or shaping of global processes,
local factors, the special historical and social backgrounds and differences
originating from them also play an important role.
5) The increasing population of metropolises, their changing functions and
global networks change their internal relation scheme as well. The earlier
hierarchical core-periphery modelled relation system is turning into or ex-
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tended by an inter-settlement system based on horizontal co-operation and
the functional division of labour.
6) The transformation of the internal relation system of metropolitan settle-
ments also means that the earlier mono-directional, no feedback relations
increasing the dependence from the centre are replaced by multi-
directional, networked relation schemes. The functional division of labour
among settlements in metropolitan areas may increase the degree of the ter-
ritorial integration of settlements.
7) The key factors correlating with the physical expansion and the changing
territorial structure of urban areas and determining the development of the
relation systems of urban areas and spatial disparities are as follows: the
decentralisation of population and the economy, the integration of urban
economies into the global economy, the spatial division of labour of firms,
producer-supplier relations and labour migration as their outcome.
Table 1
The number of cities with over 500 thousand inhabitants grouped by city size
and continents (1975, 2000, 2015)
Urban size category
Continents 1975
2000
2015
(number of inhabitants)
10 million and more
Asia
2
10
12
Latin-America and the Caribbean Region
1
4
4
North-America
1
2
2
Africa
–
1
2
Europe
–
1
2
5–10 million
Asia
6
13
23
Europe
5
5
4
Latin-America and the Caribbean Region
3
3
4
North-America
2
2
6
Africa
1
1
2
1–5 million
Asia
78
171
253
Europe
42
56
54
Latin-America and the Caribbean Region
17
42
65
North-America
28
37
43
Africa
7
33
59
Oceania
2
6
6
500 thousand–1 million
Asia
112
216
269
Europe
64
69
72
Latin-America ad the Caribbean Region
25
53
56
Africa
19
42
67
North-America
28
39
44
Oceania
4
–
2
Source: World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003 Revision, 89.
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
Table 2 summarises the key factors of the relation systems of urban areas
which are serving as a guideline for pointing out the directions of empirical re-
search. The factors summarised in the table can be categorised into three major
groups. These are economic factors, social factors and other factors.
Table 2
Factors of agglomeration, the elements of relation systems in urban areas
as specified by the cited scientific literature
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Aguilera–Mignot
(2003)
X X X
Ascher
(1998)
X X
Barta
(2002)
X
X
X
Beckouche
et
al
(1997)
X X
X
Barta-Beluszky
(1999)
X X
X X X
Belliot
(dir)
(2006)
X X X X X X
Burdack
(2005)
X X
X
Dany
et
al
(1996)
X
Enyedi
(2000)
X
Potentials
for…
(2005)
X
Giban
(2003)
X X X X X X
Gilli
(2003a)
X X
Hardi–Nárai
(2005)
X X
X X
Kőszegfalvi
(1997)
X
X
X
X
Lengyel
(2003)
X
Les
franges
franciliennes
(1997) X X X X X X
Mirloup
(2002)
X X X X X X
Mokos
(2004)
X
X
Szirmai
et
al
(2003a)
X X X X X X
Urban
sprawl…
(2006)
X
X
X X
Total
9 4 3 1 4 12 2 5 8 3 4 3 5 4 2
Legend: 1. Changes in population number, migrations, suburbanisation; 2. Housing, housing condi-
tions; 3. The development of basic settlement infrastructure; 4. The development of residential
infrastructural supply; 5. Transport connections; 6. Labour migration; 7. Commuting (pace of
residence–school); 8. The relations of economic organisations in general; 9. Site selection; 10.
Supplier relations; 11. Relations between company centres – company sub-centres; 12. The con-
sumption of economic actors, the utilisation of services; 13. The relocation of different func-
tions, residential consumption; 14. Changes in social structure; 15. The relations of research in-
stitutes.
Source: Author’s construction based on the cited scientific literature.
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In our study, the group of economic factors comprises such factors as the rela-
tions of economic organisations including the factors of site selection, supplier
relations, and the relations between company centres and company sub-centres.
The factors associated with the consumption and utilisation of services and the
relocation of certain associated, relevant service functions into suburban areas
may also belong to this category.
Site selection and herein the immigration of Foreign Direct Investment into ur-
ban areas is an element of cardinal importance for the economy of all the three
Hungarian cities; therefore, their research is by all means is necessary. Within
this context – surveying company centre – company sub-centre locations as well
as investigating the system of supplier contacts and the relation systems having
been formulated as an impact of the consumption of economic actors would pro-
vide further interesting results. The simultaneous survey of the above-mentioned
four factors would be suitable for identifying urban development factors that have
been generated by the out-radiating impacts of the capital city and for clearing
the roles of local settings.
Changes in labour migration are an important factor of both economic and so-
cial relations, and it is also an integral part of the above-mentioned economic
relations. The majority of scientific literature marks this factor as a key indicator
of agglomeration processes and the development of urban area relations. Our pre-
liminary results suggest that this factor has a key role in the development of all
three Hungarian cities investigated in the capital city region; therefore, its analy-
sis in the context of economic factors is by all means necessary.
Social factors is the second group to be analysed, encompassing such elements
as changes in population number, suburbanisation, changes in housing and hous-
ing conditions, changes in social structure and changes in the structure of residen-
tial consumption. Each of these elements has a high representation among the fac-
tors analysed in scientific literature. Of all these factors, our study is concentrat-
ing on those strongly relevant to labour migration, i.e. changes in population
number, migration processes, suburbanisation and the spatial structure of resi-
dential consumption.
Our third group is the group of the so-called other factors, encompassing the
parameters of the development of transport and residential infrastructure as well
as school-oriented commuting and the relations of research institutes. The investi-
gation of this latter component (although they are not closely connected to the
subject of our research) due to their sector-specific features should be surveyed on
urban area level but R&D sector on an even wider scale.
The economic and social relation system of the two capital city regions (with
their relevant economic and social impacts and outcomes can be revealed by a
simultaneous analysis of the factors listed in Table 3.
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
Table 3
The elements of the relation systems investigated by our research
Economic relations
Site selection
The geographical location of company-sub-centres
Supplier relations
Consumption of economic actors
Labour migration
Social relations
Migration processes
Residential consumption
Source: Author’s construction.
3 A brief introduction of the research sites
3.1 Székesfehérvár
Székesfehérvár is one of Hungary’s oldest settlements. Its favourable geographi-
cal location and central position can be verified by its short 56 km distance from
Budapest and its lying in a 15 minutes’ access time from international and do-
mestic highways which is a significantly better value than the average access time
(40 minutes [KSH]) (Figure 2).
Székesfehérvár as the county seat of Fejér County before World War 2 was a
traditionally developing historical settlement without any major industrial tradi-
tions. However, the late 1940s brought a quickly prospering economy for the city.
It was in the 1960s when the city’s economy changed fundamentally. A giant
industrial development programme was launched here by the state, resulting in
convergence to the country’s other industrial centres. This was the period when
the city’s fundamental industrial plants, such as Videoton (electronics industry),
Ikarus and KÖFÉM (aluminium industry), were founded or expanded.
As a result of this process, Székesfehérvár turned into an industrial city by the
1970s and 80s, with all of the typical disadvantages of this situation: the city and
its environment had to face the overwhelming dominance of large industrial
plants and increasing regional development differences.
The changes in the early 1990s – following the national trends – hit the local
large industrial plants as well as turning Székesfehérvár into a crisis region be-
tween 1989 and 1993. The ratio of unemployment was at its maximum in the year
1993 with a value of 30%.
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Figure 2
The geographical location of our research sample areas in Hungary
Source: http://maps.google.com.
By the mid 1990s, the city could successfully mobilise its economic develop-
ment potential (public lands with advanced infrastructure, enterprise-friendly
regional and development policy, well-trained and experienced labour force,
company references) and investment promotion policies (local business tax credit,
governmental grants), which generated a large-scale inflow of Foreign Direct
Investment, turning the city and its urban area into the third largest foreign invest-
ment zone of Hungary after Budapest and Győr.
The transformation of the economy of Székesfehérvár, the restructuring of
businesses primarily in the processing sector, their increasing weight in the local
economy are primarily resulting from Foreign Direct Investment into the city to a
value of 2.5 billion USD (until 2007).
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The dominance of processing industry and herein of electronics and engineer-
ing industry has transformed the structure of production and employment, and
generated a rapid development in production technology. The traditions of the
earlier processing industry and settlement’s favourable geographic location (be-
yond the above-mentioned factors, I mean factors such as favourable transport
geographical position, effective city and regional marketing, advanced telecom-
munication services) attracted several multinational firms applying world stan-
dard high technology (Szirmai et al. 2003b).
3.2 Tatabánya
Tatabánya is situated in the central part of Komárom-Esztergom County. The city
is also within a 15 minute access zone from the international and domestic motor-
way system. The benefits of its favourable geographical location are further in-
creased by the proximity of international border stations (Slovakia), of Budapest,
and of the capital cities of two neighbour countries (Bratislava and Vienna). The
city’s distance from Budapest is 60 kilometres.
The early industrialisation of the area, which was based on the abundance of
mineral resources, started in the late 19th century by opening a series of coal
mines (1896) which was followed by power station units (1898 and 1934) fuelled
by local coal fields. With the discovery of local bauxite fields, the area’s heavy
industrial character had been set by the middle of the 20th century. In Tatabánya
this meant coal mining, fuel-cake production, energy and heat generation, cement
production, building material industry, precision engineering, aluminium produc-
tion, and electronics industry.
The concentration of industrial jobs increased the area’s socio-economic de-
velopment level. However, since the 1960s, due to the intensive industrial devel-
opment programme, an increasing degree of industrial and residential environ-
mental strain had occurred which turned into a source of social conflicts.
The gradually expanding socio-economic development progress, whose pace
was always changing in some periods, but was intensive all the time, continued
until the mid–1980s. The short-term economic stagnation right after the cessation
of the Eocene Programme13 was followed by a socio-economic transformation
crisis and recession. Mining and its associated energy industry kept their positions
until the late 1980s. Their downsizing and partial transformation had started and
had been completed by the mid–1990s only as a result of rationalisations of the
termination of expensive production processes and of the involvement of Foreign
Direct Investment.
13 Eocene Programme: a programme in the 1980s targeted at the utilisation of the brown coal and
karst bauxite underneath the Eocene layer in the Transdanubian Mountains.
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In Tatabánya, the economic crisis lasted until the mid–1990s. The city’s eco-
nomic restructuring could be implemented due to the investment promotional
character of the local policy based on immigrating multinational firms and the
involvement of their direct investments into the local economy. The number of
foreign capital ventures in the region is approximately 400, and the total value of
their registered capital is over 100 million euro of which 80% is concentrated in
Tatabánya. The value of newly invested foreign direct capital, resulting in build-
ing new production plants, bringing in machinery, assembling production lines for
example, was nearly 0.5 billion Euro in the city (until 2002). The manufacturing
of vehicle parts, electronics and equipment – principally in chemical and envi-
ronmental industry – became the main profile of the economy. There are nearly
40 enterprises operating in the city’s industrial estate, providing jobs for more
than 6000 people. Meanwhile, the other key factors of development also under-
went a spectacular growth: social activity increased, and the city and its services
significantly improved.
3.3 Sens
The city of Sens is located in Bourgogne region next to the central Île–de–France
region. The city has a very favourable geographical location. Three motorways
(A5, A6, A19) crossing the region have a key role in the city’s road connections.
The city’s distance from Paris is 115 kilometres (Figure 3).
The city’s major railway connections are encompassing the railway lines con-
necting the city with its wider area and Paris providing a quick access (Sens–Paris
[55 minutes with more than 20 trains daily], Sens–Dijon [1 hour 45 minutes, 7
trains daily] and Sens–Lyon [2 hours by TGV]).
The city of Sens has very long historic traditions: it was already an important
city in the Middle Ages. The city’s industrial development started in the second
half of the 19th century mostly as a result of the construction of the Paris–Lyon–
Marseille railway line. However, the dynamic economic prosperity of city started
only after World War 2. This was the period when small-scale industrial manu-
facturing and handicraft industries linked to textile and food industries were
dominating the city’s and its urban area’s economy. The first major industrial
plant (SEIMA – Saint Clément) was built in the region in 1965, followed by a
quick immigration of several other firms (FMC, WELLA, BAYER – Sens). A
significant ratio of mostly manufacturing firms which settled down here between
1965 and 1973, came from the Paris region, and regarding its economic develop-
ment level, Sens region very soon closed up to the greater Paris region (Paris Ba-
sin). As it is seen, foreign capital ventures emerged in the city’s and its urban
area’s economy at quite an early time. By the end of the 70s, as a result of eco-
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nomic modernisation, the immigrating firms concentrated on inter-firm coopera-
tion and on creating of supplier networks to increase their efficiency. At the end
of the 80s, as a result of the settlement of further new firms, the following firms
grew into the area’s biggest industrial employers: Senoble (food industry), Cibié
(car industry), Filergie (cable manufacturing), Bayer-Pharma (pharmaceutical
industry). In the 90s, the city’s economic development lost its balanced nature for
a certain time, which was felt by the rise of the unemployment rate (1990 – 8,1%,
1994 – 12%, 2004 – 9,8%, and these figures are matching with the national aver-
age), by the disequilibrium of labour demand and supply, and by the increasing
out-migration of labour (chiefly to the capital city region (Plan d’occupation des
sols…, 1995).
Figure 3
The geographical location of the research sample areas in France
Source: http://maps.google.com.
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In the early years of our decade, nearly 3000 commercial and processing in-
dustry firms were registered in the city of Sens and its urban area according to the
data of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Sens (CCI de Sens). The area’s
biggest employers are shown in the figure below (Figure 4).
The city’s industry focuses on three major branches: electronics industry, food
industry and mechanical engineering. Foreign Direct Investment has a larger role
in the city’s economy now than in the earlier decades. Pirelli – cable manufactur-
ing (Italian), OTM – metal processing (American), Sonoco – packing (American),
Plastikpack – packing (German), Möllertech – plastic industry (German),
Chemetall – chemical industry (German), TEVA – pharmaceutical industry (Is-
raeli).
Figure 4
The distribution of major employers by different economic sectors
Source: Auzet, L. (2002): Des liens avec l’Ile-de-France. In: 8 aires urbaines en Bourgogne –
INSEE Bourgogne 2002.
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4 The results of empirical research
4.1 Economic relations
4.1.1 Site selection – with special regard to the immigration of foreign capital
ventures
All of the cities of our research sample area in the capital city region are parts of a
dynamic spatial network. When analysing the metropolitan area of Budapest, this
is well illustrated by changes in the number of operating businesses within a cer-
tain period. It is primarily the capital city and its wider environment (including
the urban areas of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya) where a dynamically prosper-
ing economic zone seems to shape out. This dynamism strongly correlates with
the decentralisation process of the economy.
Figure 5
Changes in the number of operating businesses between 1996 and 2003 (%)*
*National average = 1.39
Source: Central Statistical Office.
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Similar decentralisation processes can be observed in the metropolitan area of
Paris. By taking a glance at the share of firms immigrating and out-migrating
from Paris between 2000 and 2005, we can observe that the balance is negative in
every year, the number of out-migrating firms always surpasses the number of
immigrants (Table 4).
Table 4
The number of firms immigrating and out-migrating from Paris between
2000 and 2005
Year Immigrants
Out-migrants
Balance
2000 3,246
3,492
–246
2001 3,092
3,823
–731
2002 2,958
3,550
–592
2003 3,142
3,563
–421
2004 3,142
3,877
–735
2005 3,123
4,487
–1,364
Total 18,703
22,792
–4,089
Source: Localisations et délocalisations… 2006, 6.
The relocation of enterprises’ site initiated by the dynamic growth of the econ-
omy and by the restructuring of the spatial structure of labour can considered an
important factor of dynamic spatial development (Gilli, 2003a). The majority of
enterprises are out-migrating from the Île-de-France region and their greatest
share is relocating their site into its neighbour counties.
Between 1996 and 2001, 1270 firms immigrated into Bourgogne region, in-
cluding Yonne County and the city of Sens; and 1030 firms out-migrated from
there. More than 40% of the immigrating enterprises came from Îl-de-France re-
gion (Bonsacquet – Loones, 2005) (Figure 6). One-fourth of the firms out-mi-
grating from Îl-de-France region to Bourgogne settled down in the urban area of
Sens (Hilal, 2006).
Among the enterprises immigrating into our investigated regions foreign capi-
tal ventures are very important economic structure shaping and mobilising factors
(Baráth, 2005b; Gilli, 2003a; Plet 1994; Szirmai et al. 2003a).
The cities of our research have almost entirely built their crisis management
strategies on the attraction of foreign capital ventures. Moreover, in the city of
Sens, foreign capital ventures played a vital role in both the modernisation of the
economy and in creating new jobs. Among the largest employees there are such
firms as Valeo Vision (600 employees) and Cable Pirelli (850 employees).
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Figure 6
The number of firms immigrating into Bourgogne region from, Île-de-France and
Rhône–Alpes regions and the number of firms out-migrating to these regions
(between 1996 and 2001)
Source: Bonsacquet – Loones, 2005. 2.
The interviews prepared in Sens made clear that several disadvantages may
arise from the factors of site selection which may principally occur in the context
of an economic dependence on the capital city. It is a common phenomenon that
in the majority of cases, these businesses locate only their manufacturing plants in
settlements lying on the periphery of the Budapest Agglomeration Zone, but fi-
nancial and commercial branches still remain in Budapest
However, in the case of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, foreign capital ven-
tures are partially following a different strategy. In their case, it is also a usual
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practice that their manufacturing plants are located in Hungary and the proximity
of Budapest plays a vital role in their site selection policy (because of their man-
agers’ residential place, consumption and the proximity of an international air-
port) (Szirmai et al. 2003b). But on the other hand, their local (Hungarian) head-
quarters or branches are built in these cities, namely in Székesfehérvár and
Tatabánya as their economic relations and the consumption of firms are bound to
our investigated cities to an increasing degree.
Another common phenomenon in both countries is that due to Foreign Direct
Investment in Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens alike, the role of services and
logistic functions is increasing and there is a growing demand for skilled labour as
well. Nevertheless, local development is slowed down by the out-migration of
qualified professionals. The emergence of the global economy and decreasing
unemployment reduces the autonomy of the local economy; therefore, the preser-
vation of autonomy may imply the loss of economic balance (Béhar – Estèbe
1998, 114).
The spatial structure of Foreign Direct Investment shows significant difference
between our investigated Hungarian and French cities and their urban areas: in
Hungarian urban areas, nearly all investments are targeted at the industrial estates,
or in the case of brownfield, to industrial zones within the administrative
boundaries of cities. In Sens region, a high ratio of big firms are settling down in
the city’s urban area (neighbour settlements) (e.g. Valeo–Saint Clément, Cables
Pirelli–Gron, Paron, Wella–Malay–le–Grand). The reasons go back to the prices
of available land and real estate. It is remarkable that jobs created in the cities’
urban area significantly increase cooperation between the city and its neighbour
settlements, and by now, the majority of these collaboration programmes in the
urban area of Sens (communauté de commune) have been organised to operate in
institutional framework.
Another similarity between the research sites is that the global economy has
an impact on the urban development chances of cities in an indirect way through
the taxes of economic actors. Our studies revealed a significant ratio of business
taxes in the local taxation revenues, and herein the high ratio of foreign capital
ventures as taxpayers in all the three cities. The analysis of the municipal budget
of our investigated cities shows that local business taxes paid by global economic
actors contribute very highly to the local public funds of cities: in Sens, they
amount up nearly to 50% of the total local tax revenues (Brion, 2002, 19), while
in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, more than 70% of local tax revenues originates
from business tax. Regarding the total sum of budgetary revenues, these taxes
amount up to 20% and in Tatabánya to 10% of their total sum. Local taxes paid
by global economic actors contribute very highly to the local development funds
of cities.
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4.1.2 Company centre – sub-centre relations
Our analysis on company centre – sub-centre relations have revealed that all three
investigated cities have a high ratio (and similar at about 30% each) enterprises
with company headquarters in the capital city. In Hungarian cities, economic
organisations are mostly engaged in the service sector whose tendency is also true
for the city of Sens.
There is a big difference among the three cities in the role of business services
operating independently of the manufacturing plants located into them by these
firms. Of the three cities, the role of advanced business services is highest in
Székesfehérvár. The reason for this goes back to the special features of the three
cities’ urban economies, as Székesfehérvár has the most advanced industrial
technology employing skilled labour in adequate numbers. For this reason, the
degree of embedment of global economic actors into urban economies, selecting
Hungarian cities (preferably Székesfehérvár) as their site location, is higher than
in France.
Locating company headquarters into the peripheral cities of the urban area in-
stead of manufacturing plants only with all the advanced services relevant with
their activities may reduce the economic dependency of urban areas on their core
metropolis. The economic functions located into such cities may act as multipli-
cators by stimulating development in further sectors and by generating new labour
demands in the urban area and in the region.
4.1.3 The territorial structure of the consumption of economic actors
Another of our research areas was exploring the spatial structure of the consump-
tion of economic actors Our investigations in this field revealed those services of
which the utilisation is the most likely to be bound to Budapest, and which firms
are utilising them.
The results of the questionnaire survey conducted at the Hungarian enterprises
in the spring of year 2007 are indicating that regarding the utilisation of services,
they are principally bound to the hosting site of their headquarters (Figure 7). In
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, the ratio of warehouse, leasing, security, cleaning
book-keeping, accounting and data processing services was in case of each com-
ponent as high as 75–80 percent.
The analyses of the French research site are based on the data provided by the
Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Yonne County. In the whole county,
about one third of the total enterprises uses various services in the Paris region
(Paris and its neighbourhood) and this value in the city of Sens and its urban area
is presumably higher. Figure 8 shows where the services used by the enterprises
of Yonne County are located geographically. As it can be noticed, an outstanding
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ratio of services is used in Paris and its metropolitan area14 (32%), which is by far
higher than the ratio of services used in the neighbour counties of Yonne County.
The data of the interviews made in Sens also suggest that the city’s relevant
figures of service utilisation in Paris must be rather high as well.
Thus, the comparison of the two research sites may be based on the service
sectors used in the capital cities. Table 5 indicates that the enterprises of Yonne
County (as well as firms in Sens) use financial services, R&D, IT and tele-
communication, human resource and marketing and communication in the largest
share in Paris. These service groups represent an outstanding high rate not only
among services used in Paris, but also among services used in other counties.
Figure 7
The consumption of economic actors in Hungarian cities*
Advertisement, promotion
Consultancy services
Quality assurance
Product development
Education/professional training
Labour development
Security services, cleaning
Book-keeping, accounting, data processing
Financial, insurance services
Repair services
Warehouse, leasing
Commerce
Transportation–logistics
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
City
County
Region
Budapest
Budapest Agglomeration Zone
Other
* A question asked by the questionnaire: Please indicate where your company typically uses the
following services.
Legend: City – Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya; County – Komárom-Esztergom, Fejér County; Region –
Central Transdanubia.
Source: Results of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya.
14 As it is indicated by data it is the administrative unit marked by Figure 7 and Table 5.
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Figure 8
The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County in other
counties by county (%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Paris
Seine-et-
Aube
Loiret
Côte-d’Or
Rhône
Other
Marne
Source: Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Yonne County (Summer 2007).
Table 5
The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County outside
Yonne County by county and service sector (%)
Service sector
Paris
Loiret Aube Rhône Côte- Seine-et- Other Total
d’Or
Marne
Environmental
7 4 2 1 1 20 15 50
Financial
28 4 12 2 6 3 18 73
Real
estate
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
IT and telecommuni-
23 2 5 2 4 1 14 51
cation
Logistics
13 11 21 0 6 9 13 73
Transportation-logistics 12 8 13 1 2 1 19 56
Marketing and commu-
18 0 4 0 1 2 3 28
nication
R&D
24 6 6 1 7 4 14 62
Human
resource
19 2 4 2 6 1 5 39
Travel, accommodation,
2 1 0 0 1 0 0 4
catering
Total
146 38 67 10 34 41 101 437
Source: Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Yonne County (Summer 2007).
30
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
Our investigations have verified that just like domestic (both Hungarian and
French) firms, immigrating foreign capital ventures prefer using local services,
which indicates these cities’ high economic autonomy.
In our case, the geographical structure of the service utilisation of foreign
capital firms follows a simpler and less differentiated pattern. However, in some
types of services (education, training, professional training, R&D, advanced busi-
ness services) the central role of the capital city still been preserved (Figure 9).
There are also rather great differences in the firm utilisation ratio of different
services both in Tatabánya and Székesfehérvár (Figure 10). The differences are
the biggest in the utilisation ratio of product development, book-keeping, ac-
counting, data processing, financial, insurance and commercial services (regard-
ing each component, the utilisation ratio values of the firms in Székesfehérvár are
higher, meaning a higher degree of demand–supply balance in Tatabánya).
Figure 9
The share of services used by foreign and Hungarian firms in Budapest (%)
Transportation-logistics
40
Advertisement, promotion
Commerce
30
Consultancy services
Warehouse, leasing
20
10
Quality assurance
Repair services
0
Product development
Financial, insurance services
Book-keeping, accounting, data
Education, professional training
processing
Labour development
Security services, cleaning
Foreign
Hungarian
Source: Results of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya.
31
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
Figure 10
The share of services used in Budapest between the firms of Tatabánya
and Székesfehérvár (%)
Transportation-logistics
40
Advertisement, promotion
Commerce
30
Consultancy services
Warehouse, leasing
20
10
Quality assurance
Repair services
0
Product development
Financial, insurance services
Book-keeping, accounting, data
Education, professional training
processing
Labour development
Security services, cleaning
in Tatabánya
in Székesfehérvár
Source: Results of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya.
In case of Székesfehérvár, we had an opportunity to compare our present data
on the utilisation of services with the results of an earlier research project (2002)
which showed a greater integration of global economic actors into the local
economy as well as the possibility of reducing economic dependence on eco-
nomically more advanced centres (in our case on the capital city). Our analyzed
factors showed similar economic trends both in Tatabánya and Sens.
4.1.4 Supplier relations
The investigation and quantitative analysis of supplier relations could be carried
out on Hungarian research sites.15 The supplier relations with economic
organisations in Paris and in the Paris region were also emphasised in the
interviews made in Sens in the years 2004–2005.
15 It is based on a questionnaire survey carried out at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya.
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Supplier relations, both in case of Hungarian and foreign businesses, are in-
creasing the economic autonomy of our investigated cities, which is shown by the
geographical distribution of the firms’ supplier activity. Supplier firms provide
their supplier services for foreign and local (urban and urban area) firms; their
orientation towards the central capital city has no outstanding significance (Fig-
ure 11).
However, firms having their own supplier networks are more strongly bound
to Budapest. The evaluation of supplier relations is highlighting a rather
controversial situation: on the one hand it may indicate a high degree of local
economic autonomy, but on the other hand it may also show that these firms
provide supplier services for less advanced (rather manufacturing) firms ‘being on
the periphery’, which is limiting its chances to join the relation systems of urban
areas.
Figure 11
The geographical dimensions of supplier activities
City
30
25
20
Foreign country
County
15
10
5
0
Somewhere else in Hungary
Region
Budapest Agglomeration Zone
Budapest
To whom
From who
* Questions asked by the questionnaire: Where are those businesses typically located you are provid-
ing supplier services for? Where your suppliers are typically located?
Source: Results of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya
33
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
4.1.5 Labour migration
An important aspect of labour migration is that the investigated cities themselves
also have a significant labour attraction force. Workers with low education from
the neighbourhood of cities are employed mainly in industrial sectors.
Our investigations have revealed that the majority of labour migrants coming
from Budapest and from the cities in the greater urban area of our investigated
cities have university degrees (being in managerial position or doing white-collar
jobs)16, are employed in the service sector and this is a sign of the unbalanced
state of labour demand and supply.
The disequilibrium of labour demand and supply is further indicated by the pa-
rameters of labour migration to Budapest. The ratio of labour migrants to Buda-
pest and its metropolitan zone out of the working local population is 7% in
Székesfehérvár and 10% in Tatabánya (Figures 12–13). From all the three cities
the majority of labour migrants to the capital city and its metropolitan area are
employed, predominantly in the service sector.
Regarding educational background, there are large differences between the la-
bour migrants of the two cities. 61% of the daily commuters from Székesfehérvár
to Budapest have university degrees. This value for the labour migrants from Ta-
tabánya is 33% (but here, the ratio of employees with secondary education is the
highest: 57%) (Hungarian Central Statistical Office Census Data 2001). This
value for the city of Sens is lower, about 20% similar to that of Tatabánya
(INSEE Census Data 1999). From the differing values we can conclude for a
higher degree of labour demand-supply in the cities of Tatabánya and Sens, which
implies a lesser dependence from the labour demand of their capital cities.
4.2 Social relations
4.2.1 Migration processes
Between 1990 and 2001 there was an increase in the metropolitan area of Buda-
pest. The exceptions of this tendency were some territories of Komárom-
Esztergom and Nógrád counties and some medium-sized and large cities in the
peripheral zones of the metropolitan region including the cities of Tatabánya and
Székesfehérvár as well (Figure 14).
Analysing the demographic indicators of the research period, we can notice
that the increasing population number is clearly the result of the intensification of
16 66% of labour migrants from Budapest to Székesfehérvár and 65% of labour migrants from
Budapest to Székesfehérvár have university degrees.
34
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
suburbanisation processes as a natural decrease of population can be observed in
the whole area.
Migration surplus is the highest in the settlements located in the close
neighbourhood of Budapest within the area of the Budapest Agglomeration Zone.
Migration surplus areas are encompassing a territory up to the Tatabánya, Székes-
fehérvár, Dunaújváros, Kecskemét, Szolnok „border-line”, as well as the western
area of Heves and the southern part of Nógrád counties, forming an almost
entirely contiguous zone.
Suburbanisation is a typical phenomenon even in the outskirts of the peripheral
medium-size and large cities of the metropolitan region, so the urban areas of the
above-mentioned cities also have a significant migration surplus.
Figure 12
The ratio of labour migrants out of the total employees living in same locality
(2001) (%)*
*National average = 0.59
Source: Hungarian Central Statistical Office [KSH] census data (2001).
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Figure 13
The ratio of economically active population working in the Paris region
Source: Gilli, 2003b, 6, based on IGN INSEE 2000.
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
Figure 14
Changes in the population number between 1990 and 2001 (%)*
*National average = 0.99
Source: Hungarian Central Statistical Office [KSH].
Out-migration from Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, the cities located in the
proximity of motorways M1 and M7, has strongly accelerated. This shows that
out-migration (change in population) closely correlates with the location of road
networks (motorways, highways).
The population of Yonne County as indicated by the 1999 census data was
333,250, a figure which is higher by 10 thousand than it was in 1990. According
to the statistical data and previous analyses (Gilli, 2003b; Les franges…, 2003;
Maury, 2003; Brion, 1999) in the north part of the county (as well as in the city of
Sens and its urban area) the increase of population is due to the proximity of the
capital city (regarding the counties of Bourgogne region [Côte–d’Or, Nièvre,
Saône–et–Loire, Yonne], Yonne County is the only place with a positive
migration difference. In the 1990s, on an annual average 1300 more people
immigrated here than migrated out of here).
Table 6 shows changes in the population of Sens and its urban area. Besides
the significant increase of population it is also noticeable that the majority of im-
37
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migrants do not move into the city centre to settle down there but they preferably
select villages in the city’s neighbourhood. This tendency is also verified by the
interviews made in Sens. 46% percent of the interviewed economic and municipal
actors highlighted this impact of the capital city of France.
Table 6
Changes in the population of the city of Sens and its urban area between
1990 and 1999
1990
1999
90/99
%
1. 42,756
43,926
1,170
2.7
2. 27,082
26,904
–178
–0.6
3. 15,674
17,022
1,348
8.6
4. 97,161
103,860
6,699
6.9
Legend: 1. The city of Sens with its urban area. 2. Sens. 3. The urban area of Sens. 4. District of
Sens. The analysis includes the 11 neighbour settlements of Sens in the category of urban area.
The French public administration system defines district (arrondissement) as a part of county (dé-
partement). The District of Sens is located at the northern part of Yonne County, it is adjacent to
Île-de-France region.
Source: On the basis of NSEE RP 1999 „Présentation…” 2004.
Table 6 makes it clear that the urban area’s population growth is significantly
surpassing the city’s population decrease. This has resulted not from the out-mi-
gration of the city but rather from immigrations from outside the urban area. This
migration surplus largely originates from the Île-de-France region (Hilal, 2006).
Comparing the situation in the urban area of Sens with the processes ongoing
in the urban area of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, it seems that in case of Hun-
garian urban areas, we can speak of a stagnation or very small increase of popula-
tion. It goes back to population decrease in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, which
is more substantial than in the city of Sens (Table 7).
The changes in the number of population due to the spatial restructuring of
population may be interpreted as an effect of urban area formation i.e. the de-
creasing population of cities (the smallest population decrease was observed in
Sens), and is counterbalanced by the increasing population of their urban areas
(the increase in the number of population was much smaller in Hungarian cities
and their urban areas).
In the French sample areas, the immigrating population arrives principally
from Paris and its metropolitan area, while the migration surplus of the Hungar-
ian urban areas is rather more due to local suburbanisation than immigration
from external territories.
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Table 7
Changes in the population of our investigated cities and their urban area between
1990 and 1999
1990
1999/2001
90/99.01
%
Sens with its urban area
42,756
43,926
1,170
2.7
Sens 27,082
26,904
–178
–0.6
The urban area of Sens (11 settlements) 15,674
17,022
1,348
8.6
Székesfehérvár with its urban area
138,690
140,010
1,320
0.9
Székesfehérvár 108,958
106,346
–2,612
–2.4
The urban area of Székesfehérvár (18 settle-
29,732 33,664 3,932
13
ments, statistical micro-regions)
Tatabánya with its urban area 90,001
89,826
–175
–0.2
Tatabánya 74,277
72,470
–1,807
–2.5
The urban area of Tatabánya (9 settlements) 15,724
17,356
1,632
10.0
Source: INSEE, KSH.
Our results have shown that in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya as well as in
their urban areas, the immigration of citizens from Budapest and its close
neighbourhood can also be regarded as a typical phenomenon.
There is a substantial difference between the reasons of population change and
of the residential origin of immigrants into urban areas in the two country’s re-
search sample areas. The reason of this lies in the two capital city region’s differ-
ent phase in urban development. While in Budapest and its metropolitan area
suburbanisation started in the early 1990s, such suburbanisation processes had
already started in the metropolitan area of Paris in the 1960s.
In both research sites, immigrants settling down from capital cities and their
metropolitan areas by their age and motives of relocation can be arranged into two
major social groups. The first one consists of people aged over 60 out-migrating
from the city centre for spending their old-age pensioner period in peace and
quiet. They are not going to live too far from the capital city, their social contacts
and certain consumption habits are still linking them to the capital city. (This is
well illustrated by the fact that the majority of theatre goers from Székesfehérvár
to Budapest are aged over 60.)
The other group of the out-migrants from capital cities consists of young, well-
trained families preserving their jobs in the capital city who are generally married
with children. They also want to live at a quieter and cleaner place and can afford
to buy a house and land only at a greater distance from the capital.
Out-migrants from the capital cities to our investigated cities and their envi-
ronment (including well-trained labour) may be the potential labour force of the
39
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cities they live in. A greater degree of balance between labour demand and sup-
ply, the interconnection of residential and working place functions would signifi-
cantly reduce the city’s dependency on the capital. Today, the increase of
population does not automatically create new jobs as a great number of
immigrants preserve their current job which increases central dependence.
The separation of social classes (by age, education level, living habits) is a
typical phenomenon in both of our Hungarian and French research sites. The tra-
ditional core-periphery relation between cities and their urban areas is in change
now. High social classes are emerging in urban areas – the peripheries by this
model – as well. The past socio-spatial inequalities are partially restructured and
reproduced in this way.
4.2.2 The spatial structure of residential consumption
Labour and residential migrations have strong impacts on the spatial structure of
residential consumption as well.
The daily labouring out-migrants of our investigated cities (a part of them the
new immigrants) do not use various services, such as public health services,
education, training, cultural services at their place of residence. This is a remark-
able phenomenon because the consumer habits of daily out-migrants from cities
who in the majority of cases are young, high-qualified workers have a low impact
on the quality of local services, which on long-term may slow down or hinder the
development and location of different services (e.g. advanced business services)
into these locations.
Our investigations have shown that in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya the man-
agers of foreign capital firms (including foreign and Hungarian managers) in the
highest ratio (approximately 70%) live in cities or their close neighbourhood. The
linkage to residential area has a strong impact on the involved social groups’
spatial structure of consumption, which means that the majority of services are
utilised locally i.e. in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, increasing local demand and
extending the palette of local services.
Our analyses have also highlighted that irregardless of the processes of labour
migration, in the field of some services (education–courses, higher education,
cultural services–theatre, concert, cinema), the capital city targeted orientation of
residential consumption may work against the expansion and quality improve-
ment of local services. What is much more important here is that it also brings
about a functional division of urban areas. The service types associated with the
central capital city (such as educational and cultural functions or advanced busi-
ness services) are separated to an increasing degree from those used in local or
urban area context which by their further improvement (commercial and banking
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services, restaurants, amusement, health services) would further extend the central
functions of our investigated cities.
4.2.3 Cities and their inhabitants: integration, satisfaction, participation
The third aspect of investigating social relations was analysing factors indicating
the relationship of our investigated cities with their inhabitants.17 As a part of this
task, our analysis of labour migration examined whether there is a difference be-
tween the opinion of local labourers and labour out-migrants on the city’s local
development and their own residential environment. The analysis also investi-
gated the question whether the affected residential groups (local labourers and
labour out-migrants) are somehow participating in the activities of local civil or-
ganisations.
The local labourers’ higher personal involvement in local civil organisations
shows their higher degree of local activity and social integration.
There is also a great difference in residential satisfaction between local labour-
ers and labour out-migrants. Our results in Székesfehérvár show that labour out-
migrants are more satisfied with the built and natural environment, public
sanitation, noise level and green areas of their residential area. This is partly be-
cause they are living in residential districts providing a top quality living envi-
ronment (mostly in villa suburbs or elite family house dwelling zones) and partly
– as it is seen from the use of other services – they are less affected by these
problems. Their manners of residential area utilisation are completely different
from local labourers.
Local labourers’ satisfaction seems to be higher with services rendered by dif-
ferent institutions, institutes of education, sports and entertainment facilities.
Their higher satisfaction with building council flats should also be highlighted,
which can also be explained by their higher involvement and possibly higher need
for support.
The factors of future local development perspectives (economic factors, the
development of institutions, local policy, social factors and the elements of the
quality of life) were also evaluated in a different way by the two analysed resi-
dential groups. In these matters labour out-migrants were also less concerned,
which may weaken the long-term development opportunities of these settlements.
However in Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens alike, urban development
policies are targeted at the greater satisfaction of citizens. The major result of the
last two decades in this field is the change of urban development trends. In
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, the development and urban policies set up in the
17 The results are based on interviews made in Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens as well as on the
questionnaire database of NKFP research project cited in the ‘Methods’ chapter.
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years following the change of regime can be divided into clearly distinct periods.
Strictly defined crisis management, new job creation period concentrating on the
urban economy only, has gradually turned into urban development objectives and
policies comprising qualitative elements, e.g. public health, public security,
development of public education, relieving the seriousness of environmental
problems, the management of social problems, improving housing policy (Baráth,
2005a). Our research results in Sens also emphasise the city’s development
progress along the way as it has precisely been set up by strategic objectives and
programmes (Baráth, 2005b).
5 New scientific results
Our empirical research – which followed the specified objectives of our research
project – has investigated the relations of two metropolises situated in a different
social and economic environment (Budapest and Paris) – as well as the impact
forces mediated by the central city. The major findings of our study as solutions
for our hypotheses can be summed up as follows (Figure 15).
1. Our results of socio-economic factor analysis have verified the differences
in the socio-economic development processes between Hungary and France in
several aspects.
In the field of economic factors, the first major difference is between the inte-
gration of immigrated foreign capital firms into the local economic environment
in Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens. According to our investigations in
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, their embeddedness into the local urban economy
is higher, which is noticeable by the location of the non-manufacturing plant re-
lated company centres (e.g. financial centres) in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya
,and by the spatial structure of the consumption of firms. In the city of Sens, the
first international firms had already emerged in the 1970s, while in Székesfe-
hérvár and Tatabánya, only in the first half of the decade following the change of
regime: there is therefore a great difference in the speed of the integration process
of foreign capital firms into the local economy of these two cities.
Our results indicate that it is not the type of urban settlement (traditional city,
new city) but rather urban development strategies applied in the context of their
own urban areas that are the primary differentiating factors of the central capital
cities’ impacts on local urban development. Székesfehérvár and Sens, the cities
following the traditional way of urban development, and Tatabánya, categorised
as new city by the nomenclature of Hungarian urban typology all alike accom-
plished economic restructuring mostly on the basis of Foreign Direct Investment,
which also demonstrates the role of global impacts on urban development.
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Figure 15
New results
Source: Author’s construction.
The major differences between research sites are arising from the historical
differences between their economic and social background.
The analysis of economic forces revealed that the restructuring impacts of
global economic processes are stronger in Hungary than in France. This is due to
the delayed emergence and development of the market economy starting from the
early 1990s only, while in France, it could look back to a long history.
The spatial structure of Foreign Direct Investment is another difference be-
tween the two research areas. In Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, nearly all invest-
ments are targeted at industrial estates or industrial zones within the
administrative boundaries of cities. In Sens region, due to differences in available
land and real estate, different prices and a different historical and social
background, a high ratio of foreign investment is targeted at the city’s urban area
(neighbour settlements). The new jobs created in this way in the city’s urban area
significantly increase cooperation between the city of Sens and its neighbour
settlements and a greater part of these collaboration programmes have been or-
ganised to operate in an institutional framework than in the urban areas of
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya.
The geographical origin of residents immigrating into the urban areas of
Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens was a key component of difference in the
analysed social factors. The majority of citizens immigrating into the urban area
of Sens arrive from Paris and the Paris region, but the migration surplus of the
43
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Discussion Papers, No. 75.
urban areas of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya is mostly the outcome of local
suburbanisation processes. The reason of this lies in the two capital city region’s
differing historical periods in the process of global spatial organisation.
Our results show that the increase of residential functions does not automati-
cally create new jobs as a great number of immigrants preserve their current job –
the majority of Sens immigrants in the central capital city, and the majority of
Hungarian immigrant citizens in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, which in case of
Sens and its urban area increases the intensity of their relations with the central
capital city.
2. The new elements of spatial relation system expanding the traditional core-
periphery model with horizontal co-operation can be identified on both research
sites. The horizontal relations inside companies and between companies (such as
supplier relations) should by all means be highlighted as their analysis clearly
demonstrated the spatial economic integration of enterprises involved into our
research. The analysis of the spatial relation system based on the consumption of
companies, the utilisation of services and labour migration provided similar
results. Our study has also revealed that the spatial structure of residential con-
sumption is strongly correlated with labour migration and this interaction is fur-
ther enhanced by the fact that the utilisation of certain services (education-
courses, higher education and cultural services) is also bound to Budapest in the
historical perspective.
Thus, these relation systems are characterised by both the stabilisation of hier-
archical relations and by the emergence of horizontal relations. Horizontal rela-
tion schemes are formulated only in case they yield greater advantages for stake-
holders. For economic actors, these advantages materialise in higher profits, better
market prospects, clustering, improving thematic networks or increasing chances
of participating in tenders. For individuals, advantages will be tangible in easier
access to services, simpler administration of affairs, the maintenance of linkages
to local services, and the preservation of local identity. Nevertheless certain
activities (advanced business services, certain cultural services, some educational
activities) require a critical mass that still maintains their hierarchical character.
3. In the sample areas, the metropolitan areas’ relation system – the
emergence of sub-centre functions – serving as a ground for horizontal relations
and the functional division of labour – can also be identified. They depend on
three factors. The first is the local existence of services utilised by economic
actors, the second is the territorial structure of residential consumption and the
third is the place’s labour attraction force.
The urban sub-centre functions are dominant in company services demanding
less trained (but a large number of) labour force, in economic services of local
importance (business promotion, consultancy, promotion of local cooperation,
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business administration services) and in social services (commerce, sport, profes-
sional training, social care). The awareness of all these factors is a great step to-
wards the formulation of future urban development strategies.
4. Changes in the social and economic relations of the traditional core-
periphery model will also reconfigure the system of inequalities.
Of the economic factors, our research results concerning company relation
systems and the spatial structure of the consumption of economic actors indicate a
spatial equalisation process. This is resulting from the increasing integration of
economic actors into urban economic systems.
However, labour migration and the balance of labour demand and supply are
still dependant on the metropolitan centre.
Of the investigated socio-spatial factors, migrations are clear indicators of the
transforming metropolitan core-periphery model. These changes are signalled by
the emergence of high social classes outside of the urban centre, by residential
segregation and the growth of social polarisation.
5. In the context of inequalities, the development of economic relation systems
is progressing towards networks, regional processes, individual roles, all in one
towards the elements of autonomous economic development. The social impacts
and outcomes of the above-described processes are increasing the number of
elements subordinated to the metropolitan centre.
6. New spatial relations arising from growth into a metropolitan area scaled
size are organised on functional rather than administrative basis. This statement
is verified by migration processes, the labour attraction force of metropolitan
centres, by the decentralisation of economy, and by the urban area level func-
tional relations of economic actors. Each of these factors is independent from
administrative borders (county, capital city agglomeration, settlement group). The
formation of spatial relations is motivated mostly by thrift and accessibility rea-
sons.
7. Our investigations have also verified that the spatial configuration and urban
development impacts of capital cities are not primarily dependant on the
population number based size of the selected cities. In spite of the differing city
size and of the resulting different functions performed in their urban area network
the impacts of the capital city on the urban development factors of Székesfehérvár
and Tatabánya are very similar in several aspects (Foreign Direct Investment, its
role in economic restructuring, the spatial structure of the consumption of
economic actors, labour migration, the spatial structure of residential consump-
tion). This result suggests that our statements may be true not only for the selected
cities, but can also be relevant on a general level.
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The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
The Discussion Papers series of the Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian
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The series has 5 or 6 issues a year. It will be of interest to geographers, economists, so-
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The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
Papers published in the Discussion Papers series
Discussion Papers / Specials
BENKŐNÉ LODNER, Dorottya (ed.) (1988): Environmental Control and Policy: Proceedings of
the Hungarian–Polish Seminar in the Theoretical Problems of Environmental Control
and Policy
OROSZ, Éva (ed.) (1988): Spatial Organisation and Regional Development Papers of the 6th Polish–
Hungarian geographical Seminar
DURÓ, Annamária (ed.) (1993): Spatial Research and the Social–Political Changes: Papers of the
7th Polish–Hungarian Seminar
DURÓ, Annamária (ed.) (1999): Spatial Research in Support of the European Integration.
Proceedings of the 11th Polish–Hungarian Geographical Seminar (Mátraháza, Hungary
17–22 September, 1998)
GÁL, Zoltán (ed.) (2001): Role of the Regions in the Enlarging European Union
HORVÁTH, Gyula (ed.) (2002): Regional Challenges of the Transition in Bulgaria and Hungary
KOVÁCS, András Donát (ed.) (2004): New Aspects of Regional Transformation and the Urban-
Rural Relationship
BARANYI, Béla (ed.) (2005): Hungarian–Romanian and Hungarian–Ukrainian border regions as
areas of co-operation along the external borders of Europe
ENYEDI, György – KOVÁCS, Zoltán (eds.) (2006): Social Changes and Social Sustainability in
Historical Urban Centres. The Case of Central Europe
KOVÁCS, András Donát (ed.) (2007): Regionality and/or locality
SZIRMAI, Viktória (ed.) (2007): Social Inequalities in Urban Areas and Globalization. The Case of
Central Europe
ILLÉS, Iván (2008): Visions and Strategies in the Carpathian Area (VASICA)
GÁL, Zoltán – RÁCZ, Szilárd (eds.) (2008): Socio-Economic Analysis of the Carpathian Area
Discussion Papers
No. 1
OROSZ, Éva (1986): Critical Issues in the Development of Hungarian Public Health with
Special Regard to Spatial Differences
No. 2
ENYEDI, György – ZENTAI, Viola (1986): Environmental Policy in Hungary
No. 3
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1987): Administrative Division and Administrative Geography in
Hungary
No. 4
SIKOS T., Tamás (1987): Investigations of Social Infrastructure in Rural Settlements of
Borsod County
No. 5
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1987): Development of the Regional Management of the Economy in
East-Central Europe
No. 6
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona (1988): Chance of Local Independence in Hungary
No. 7
FARAGÓ, László – HRUBI, László (1988): Development Possibilities of Backward
Areas in Hungary
No. 8
SZÖRÉNYINÉ KUKORELLI, Irén (1990): Role of the Accessibility in Development and
Functioning of Settlements
50
Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75.
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
No. 9
ENYEDI, György (1990): New Basis for Regional and Urban Policies in East-Central
Europe
No. 10
RECHNITZER, János (1990): Regional Spread of Computer Technology in Hungary
No. 11
SIKOS T., Tamás (1992): Types of Social Infrastructure in Hungary (to be not published)
No. 12
HORVÁTH, Gyula – HRUBI, László (1992): Restructuring and Regional Policy in
Hungary
No. 13
ERDŐSI, Ferenc (1992): Transportation Effects on Spatial Structure of Hungary
No. 14
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona (1992): The Basic Political and Structural Problems in the
Workings of Local Governments in Hungary
No. 15
PFEIL, Edit (1992): Local Governments and System Change. The Case of a Regional
Centre
No. 16
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1992): Culture and Urban Development (The Case of Pécs)
No. 17
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1993): Settlement Network Development Policy in Hungary in the
Period of State Socialism (1949–1985)
No. 18
KOVÁCS, Teréz (1993): Borderland Situation as It Is Seen by a Sociologist
No. 19
HRUBI, L. – KRAFTNÉ SOMOGYI, Gabriella (eds.) (1994): Small and medium-sized
firms and the role of private industry in Hungary
No. 20
BENKŐNÉ Lodner, Dorottya (1995): The Legal-Administrative Questions of
Environmental Protection in the Republic of Hungary
No. 21 ENYEDI, György (1998): Transformation in Central European Postsocialist Cities
No. 22 HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1998): Changes in the Politico-Geographical Position of Hungary in the
20th Century
No. 23
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1998): Regional and Cohesion Policy in Hungary
No. 24
BUDAY-SÁNTHA, Attila (1998): Sustainable Agricultural Development in the Region
of the Lake Balaton
No. 25
LADOS, Mihály (1998): Future Perspective for Local Government Finance in Hungary
No. 26
NAGY, Erika (1999): Fall and Revival of City Centre Retailing: Planning an Urban
Function in Leicester, Britain
No. 27
BELUSZKY, Pál (1999): The Hungarian Urban Network at the End of the Second
Millennium
No. 28
RÁCZ, Lajos (1999): Climate History of Hungary Since the 16th Century: Past, Present
and Future
No. 29
RAVE, Simone (1999): Regional Development in Hungary and Its Preparation for the
Structural Funds
No. 30
BARTA, Györgyi (1999): Industrial Restructuring in the Budapest Agglomeration
No. 31
BARANYI, Béla–BALCSÓK, István–DANCS, László–MEZŐ, Barna (1999):
Borderland Situation and Peripherality in the North-Eastern Part of the Great Hungarian
Plain
No. 32
RECHNITZER, János (2000): The Features of the Transition of Hungary’s Regional
System
No. 33
MURÁNYI, István–PÉTER, Judit–SZARVÁK, Tibor–SZOBOSZLAI, Zsolt (2000):
Civil Organisations and Regional Identity in the South Hungarian Great Plain
No. 34
KOVÁCS, Teréz (2001): Rural Development in Hungary
No. 35
PÁLNÉ, Kovács Ilona (2001): Regional Development and Governance in Hungary
51
Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75.
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
No. 36
NAGY, Imre (2001): Cross-Border Co-operation in the Border Region of the Southern
Great Plain of Hungary
No. 37
BELUSZKY, Pál (2002): The Spatial Differences of Modernisation in Hungary at the
Beginning of the 20th Century
No. 38
BARANYI, Béla (2002): Before Schengen – Ready for Schengen. Euroregional
Organisations and New Interregional Formations at the Eastern Borders of Hungary
No. 39
KERESZTÉLY, Krisztina (2002): The Role of the State in the Urban Development of
Budapest
No. 40
HORVÁTH, Gyula (2002): Report on the Research Results of the Centre for Regional
Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
No. 41
SZIRMAI, Viktoria – A. GERGELY, András – BARÁTH, Gabriella–MOLNÁR, Balázs
– SZÉPVÖLGYI, Ákos (2003): The City and its Environment: Competition and/or Co-
operation? (A Hungarian Case Study)
No. 42
CSATÁRI, Bálint–KANALAS, Imre–NAGY, Gábor –SZARVÁK, Tibor (2004): Regions
in Information Society – a Hungarian Case-Study
No. 43
FARAGÓ, László (2004): The General Theory of Public (Spatial) Planning (The Social
Technique for Creating the Future)
No. 44
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (2004): Carpathian Basin and the Development of the Hungarian
Landscape Theory Until 1948
No. 45
GÁL, Zoltán (2004): Spatial Development and the Expanding European Integration of the
Hungarian Banking System
No. 46
BELUSZKY, Pál – GYŐRI, Róbert (2005): The Hungarian Urban Network in the
Beginning of the 20th Century
No. 47
G. FEKETE, Éva (2005): Long-term Unemployment and Its Alleviation in Rural Areas
No. 48
SOMLYÓDYNÉ PFEIL, Edit (2006): Changes in The Organisational Framework of
Cooperation Within Urban Areas in Hungary
No. 49
MEZEI, István (2006): Chances of Hungarian–Slovak Cross-Border Relations
No. 50 RECHNITZER, János – SMAHÓ, Melinda (2006): Regional Characteristics of Human
Resources in Hungary During the Transition
No. 51
BARTA, Györgyi – BELUSZKY, Pál – CZIRFUSZ, Márton – GYŐRI, Róbert –
KUKELY, György (2006): Rehabilitating the Brownfield Zones of Budapest
No. 52
GROSZ, András (2006): Clusterisation Processes in the Hungarian Automotive Industry
No. 53
FEKETE, G. Éva – HARGITAI, Judit – JÁSZ, Krisztina – SZARVÁK, Tibor –
SZOBOSZLAI, Zsolt (2006): Idealistic Vision or Reality? Life-long learning among
Romany ethnic groups
No. 54
BARTA, Györgyi (ed.) (2006): Hungary – the New Border of the European Union
No. 55
GÁL, Zoltán (2006): Banking Functions of the Hungarian Urban Network in the Early
20th Century.
No. 56
SZÖRÉNYINÉ, Kukorelli Irén (2006): Relation Analysis in Rural Space – A Research
Method for Exploring the Spatial Structure in Hungary
No. 57
MAUREL, Marie-Claude – PÓLA, Péter (2007): Local System and Spatial Change – The
Case of Bóly in South Transdanubia
No. 58
SZIRMAI, Viktória (2007): The Social Characteristics of Hungarian Historic City Centres
No. 59
ERDŐSI, Ferenc – GÁL, Zoltán – GIPP, Christoph – VARJÚ, Viktor (2007): Path
Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of
TWIST project
52
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The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
No. 60
PÓLA, Péter (2007): The Economic Chambers and the Enforcement of Local Economic
Interests
No. 61
BUDAY-SÁNTHA, Attila (2007): Development Issues of the Balaton Region
No. 62
LUX, Gábor (2008): Industrial Development, Public Policy and Spatial Differentiation in
Central Europe: Continuities and Change
No. 63
MEZEI, Cecília (2008): The Role of Hungarian Local Governments in Local Economic
Development
No. 64
NAGY, Gábor (2008): The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld
Region – Hungary
No. 65
HORVÁTH, Gyula (2008): Regional Transformation in Russia
No. 66
BELUSZKY, Pál – SIKOS T., Tamás (2008): Changing Village-Typology of Rural
Settlements in Hungary at the Beginning of the Third Millennium
No. 67
CSIZMADIA, Zoltán – GROSZ, András (2008): Regional Innovation System in West
Transdanubia
No. 68
HARDI, Tamás (ed.) (2008): Transborder Movements and Relations in the Slovakian–
Hungarian Border Regions
No. 69
ERDŐSI, Ferenc (2008): Global and Regional Roles of the Russian Transport
Infrastructures
No. 70
CSIZMADIA, Zoltán (2009): Cooperation and Innovativity: the Network Foundations of
the Regional System of Innovation
No. 71
HAJDÚ, Zoltán – LUX, Gábor – PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona – SOMLYÓDYNÉ PFEIL,
Edit (2009): Local Dimensions of a Wider European Neighbourhood: Crossborder
Relations and Civil Society in the Hungarian–Ukrainian Border Arean
No. 72
HORVÁTH, Gyula (2009): Cohesion Deficiencies in Eastern and Central Europe –
Inequalities of Regional Research Area
No. 73
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona –VARJÚ, Viktor (eds.) (2009): Governance for Sustainability –
Two Case Studies from Hungary
No. 74
SZÉPVÖLGYI, Ákos (2009): The Effects of the Information Society on Spatial
Development – Hungarian Case Study
53