Discussion Papers 1993.
Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes 67-84. p.
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
67
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
IN SOME CENTRAL EUROPEAN
COUNTRIES ABOUT 1980
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
The application of employment indices to analyze the development of services often
meets criticism, reasonable in the case of some of them, especially those of the sociocul-
tural sphere of services, which employ far fewer people than their social role would indi-
cate. However, it does not alter the fact that employment remains the only objective index,
comparable in time and space, that allows for an international study of endowment with
services. Remembering the limitations mentioned above, employment data have been ac-
cepted as a basis for illustrating differences in the development of services in five Central
European countries: Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Poland
and Romania. The statistical data used have been collected from the turn of the 1970s and
1980s. The grouping of data into spheres and branches of services originates from the
author's earlier studies (WERWICKI, A. 1987), which assumes that all branches of the
national economy, apart from agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, manufacturing and
construction, represent service activities. In this way not only strictly productive activities
were excluded from the analysis but also all productive services, employment in which in
the discussed countries is being registered together with that branch of economy for which
those services have been rendered. Therefore the object of this analysis must be limited to
the sub-system of consumption and public services composed of three spheres: market,
socio-cultural and civil services. The differences in the number of detailed items in the
national statistics of the countries in question determined, however, that further analysis
has been carried through only in a division into two spheres of services: the market and
socio-cultural ones, the latter comprising also the civil services. This also means the return
to the traditional division of the third sector of economic activities into two groups —
material and non-material services (NOWOSIELSKA, E. 1972) — or, as some authors
suggested (BORCHERT, J. G. 1980), into the third and fourth sectors of activities.
The regional differentiation of employment structures has been discussed first of all by
countries, and secondly inside them, by the first order administrative units. In Czechoslo-
vakia they are 'kraj'-s (lands), in the GDR — 'Bezirk'-s, in Hungary — 'megye'-s, in
Poland — voivodships and in Romania — 'judet'-s.
PERSONS ACTIVE IN SERVICES IN THE BACKGROUND OF THE
GROSS AND NON-AGRICULTURAL EMPLOYMENT
The first question arising in an analysis of service employment concerns both the ab-

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
68
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
solute and relative parts played by it in the gross employment of any analyzed territory.
Important also is the share of service employment in the structure of non-agricultural em-
ployment.
Among the countries in question Poland had the biggest absolute number of persons
employed in services, however, in relation to the total employment it accounted for only
34.2% (48.9% in relation to the non-agricultural employment), while the share of those
employed in agriculture and forestry accounted for 30.2% and those employed in mining,
manufacturing and construction for as much as 35.6%.  (Table 1)  In the GDR service em-
ployment took second place in its absolute number and, at the same time, it had the highest
shares in relation to gross and non-agricultural employment among the countries dis-
cussed (46.0 and 51.5%, respectively). Czechoslovakia and Hungary also had high shares
of service employment in relation to both total and non-agricultural ones, although their
absolute service employment was relatively small. Romania had the lowest share of ser-
vice employment: it accounted for only 25.2% of the gross employment and for 39.3% of
the non-agricultural one; agriculture in Romania at the same time provided employment
to 36.8%, and manufacturing with mining and construction to 38.0% of professionally
active persons. Comparing these data with respective ones of the most developed coun-
tries of the world  (Table 2),  it may be stated that the GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary
have already entered the post-industrial stage of economic development, while Poland
still remains in the stage of industrial domination accompanied by a high share of agricul-
tural employment. Romania at the same time had an employment structure typical of the
transitional period from an agricultural to an industrial economy.
The international differences discussed find their reflection in the internal diversifica-
tion of the countries in question. To show these differences, a classification of territorial
units has been evolved, based on the shares of non-agricultural employment compared
with their mean values for the studied countries on the one hand, and, on the other, on the
rates of employment in industry and construction as well as in services, calculated as
shares of the non-agricultural employment, also compared to the respective means for the
countries in question. As the scheme to  Figure 1 shows, they allow for a distinction of nine
classes of units, of which class 2, 5 and 8 are transitional as compared with the purely
productive (classes 1, 4 and 7) and servicing ones (classes 3, 6 and 9). In the countries in
question classes 1 and 2 with a distinctive agricultural character of employment and the
lowest shares of service employment appear only in Romania where they cover as much
as 29% of all the territorial units  (Figure 1). However, in Romania the largest share be-
longs to class 4 (33%) with a mixed industrial and agricultural structure of employment.
Besides this one in Romania only one other unit—in Poland—belongs to this class. Six
other Romanian 'judet'-s had an industrial structure of employment (class 7), like the
Katowice voidvodship in Poland and three 'megye'-s in Northern Hungary (Borsod-
Abatij-Z,emplen, Komarom, NOgrad). There are only seven units in Romania belonging to
classes with a service type structure of employment (classes 3, 6 and 9). On the contrary,
class 9 with high shares of both industrial and service employment dominated in the GDR
(53% of all units) and Czechoslovakia (50% of the units). In these countries it has been
accompanied almost exclusively by the similar class 8 with an intermediate employment
structure between a highly industrial and industrial and a service one, often appearing also

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
69
in Hungary (40% of the existing units). hi Poland only five voivodships had the structure
of class 8. It is to be noted that classes 8 and 9 representing an employment structure with
high shares of both industrial and service employment have also been typical of the capi-
tals of all the studied countries, as well as for most territorial units comprising big cities.
In Poland the most numerous were units belonging to class 6 (30%) with a mixed employ-
ment structure—industrial-agricultural and service one. A further 22% of voivodships was
represented by class 3 with an agricultural and service structure of employment. Apart
from Poland only one 'judet' in Romania (Constanta) had such a structure. Based on the
above discussion it may be stated that Czechoslovakia, the GDR and Hungary are coun-
tries with harmoniously developed employment structures. In Poland it is the agricultural
and service as well as industrial and service structures that proved to be dominant, both
with high shares of service employment resulting mostly from a deficit in other non-agri-
cultural productive functions. In Romania agricultural as well as industrial and agricultu-
ral structures were dominant.
An analysis of the percentage distribution of the service employment in the total num-
ber of professionally active persons may serve as proper means for a further supplemen-
tation of the above diversification of the countries in question. These shares were the
lowest in Romania where only one fourth of all the territorial units had a service employ-
ment share larger than the national mean and where only in two units (Bucuresti and
Constanta) did they exceed the mean value for the five countries examined. This indicates
that in 31 units the shares of service employment did not exceed the value of 25% of the
gross employment. hi Czechoslovakia and the GDR the situation was just the opposite.
All their administrative units had percentage shares of service employment higher than
the mean value for the five countries. Furthermore, the shares of service employment were
much higher than this average in most of their territorial units. In this respect Poland and
Hungary held an intermediate position. The international mean, only slightly higher than
the national means for these countries, exceeded in Hungary 55% of the 'megye'-s, while
in Poland 30% of the existing voivodships. The dominant group of units in Poland was
represented by voivodships with service employment shares lower than 30% of those en-
gaged in the non-agricultural sector of the economy. These voivodships were located in
the central and Eastern parts of the country. (Figure 2) There were only two such units in
Hungary. The picture shown above indicates the existence of a certain regularity which
relies on the fact that the higher the national shares of service employment were, the larger
the numbers were of territorial units with shares higher than the international mean. It may
also be noted that in the immediate neighbourhood of capitals which are normally the
biggest national concentrations of service activities, there usually appeared units with
much lower shares of service employment.
The above internal diversification of the countries in question, although very general
because of the size of the teritorial units analyzed (especially in Czechoslovakia), and,
resulting from this, their functionally diversified content indicate the existence of some
regularities which allow for the definition on an international scale of several levels of
service development.

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
70
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
Source
t
Count
ot
R
P
H
G
C
ol
al
o
un
DR
ze
ma
a
:
s
nd
gar
ch
Nati
ri
ni
osl
es
a
y
(-)
0
onal
ov
st
0
udi
aki
D

st
ed
a
ati
sti
cs
and
1977
1980
1980
198
1981
0`<

th

1

e
1

auth
48
1
16
0
4
8
7
,00
,793
,73
,9
,2
,26
or'
95
5
9
2
19
8
o.  o
E.
s
.3
.6
.1
.3
.9
.4
.
c

al

c
11
ul
3
I
1
ati
,787
,975
's
84
884
,0
In
26
c:,.. 0
ons
9
a
.1
.6
,,,
.
oso
.8
.5
.4
gri

8
cul
co
t
24
3
30
17
10
14
ure
6
.6
.8
.2
.3
.7
.3
cD  `0 8


0000
VI
'".I
36
6
11
4
7,4
6
,222
.8
,68
,06
,24
0  ..3
18
11
g
1
9
2
o.  o
.2
.0
.3
.5
.4 '
.0
,.."

1
Prof
75
63
69
82
89
85
n
essi
.4
.2
.8
.7
.3
.7
n "Ci  8



o  0  . o
e••s  ,,.,
tA  ^,
onal
r
3
.
.. In
l
18
..:
y
4
5
2
3
,994
,10
.964
,10
,59
,235
-  mi
acti
g
ni
1
1
1
0
Out
v
.1
.8
.2
.2
.9
.0
NI.
n
e

g
,
sid
manuf
CD
e
52
60
51
51
48
51
a
5b tn  .,1
gri
.4
.2
.1
.6
.5
.8
"c3  8 °
ac-



rz 'ei 4
cul
1
t
ure
17
2
5
1
3
3
,228
,716
,717
,96
,819
,007
cn  .3
8
g  0
0.  c
.1
.2
.1
.3
.5
.7
''''

i
n
co
V P
35
25
34
40
46
4
1
5 5
*
r,
.9
.2
.2
.0
.0
.4
co  4:$  o
5- . o

I


PP




,..4  CA  '—',
C
47
39
48
48
51
48
4'•  5cD
0  ca.  cD  log
.6
.8
.9
.4
.5
.2




9 % 0  0 0
. ,

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
7 I
l-

e-
r-
es
cu
r
d
9'
ma
ic
O'
£'
S'
L
271
9'
v
.
io-
SZ
01
L£
LZ
LZ
8£
017
ing
er
7
oc

s
a
l an
in
t
s
a
In
tur
m
ke
Z
£
8
5
1
6'
g
f i*
.
7
LI
.
171
1
71
LI
£1
•
6I
SI
6
LI
I
t

en
m

loy
o

(r
ta-
n

mp
ices
or
t
io
t7
L
6
I*
8
0
8
0'
s
e
v
ices
v
I
sp
d com-
.
9
.

.
5
5
.
9
.
9
.
5
S
er
ica
tl
r
os
s
t
ser
an
n

f
g
In
ke
tran
mun
l
p

Q
o
In
tio
t
ive
%
mar
O
ac
re,
In
0
L'
97Z
£'
L
61
I'
lly
.
.
a
ltu
0Z
OZ
0Z
1Z
7Z
EZ
n
Z

io
icu
r
ss
fe
ag
o
0,
Pr
i
de
ts
co
Z'
C7
£'
g'
V09
ti
Ou
9'
17'
£'
I'
of
8

0
8g
0
E
0
5
P
5
9
g
9
9
O

r
9
1
8'
£'
976
S
9'
L1'
'
l'
-
68
t'
16
.
Z8
1
76
L6
96
6
H
6

O
O
160'
17Z1
I9L7Z
8
£L6'
9661
oot`
97;
2
ZS
7:1
02
'
,...i  c
7'
28
•...
£
9Z
3
1
Z
701
voz
.5
2 v
6,
•....
o=

13.
2
E..,  0
I
Le)
I
CO

many
ls
5
ta

Ger
to
try
f
d
n
o
L110
ic
z
e
O
ly
Cou
bl
pB

u
Puu
tes
ana
Paz
e«t
u
p 0
Sta
ies
O
0
d
tr
sn
r
a
l
Rep
o
I
1
. 5
lm
1
.
U
ite
d
de
0  8
S
I
Fe
fa.
cn
I
Un
Coun
O

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary
•
Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
72
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
,10
00 'V
CT
In
-A
C..s
NJ N....  2?
1
I
I
I
I
li  g.
p:  E  Fi.  a  a ,,,,v n•  a  Pi' n.  a  n.  a  Fi-  R* 'i. cl' cv  fa.
s1  q 9 .!*  t:. q ,!.,
. ,Z  ",Z ,;" Zr .!, Zr tr  a
i.
...
a
a  2 ? 2
a  1'  rf

k
5.  $>. • ...
,,
•  zi,
..•
.
p,..
0.
R.
•,.
,.
sr:
I I
0
4.1
co
•
•
•
•
11111111
-
-
-  .
•
•
•
•
.
.
II
-
.  .  .
! . •
-  •  •  •  .  •  .  6.,  hM i
: • • • • •-•:  •  •:.747.3 man
1
,1 11
,  ,
rc4
09%
77
1  11
,  it.,  I  I
4

1 11 1 1I 1I

,  ,  I  I  I
II

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
74
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
THE STRUCTURE OF SERVICE EMPLOYMENT
Particular countries are often more diversified by the structure of employment in ser-
vices than by their shares in the gross and non-agricultural employment. At the beginning
it may be stated that the higher the level of development in a certain country is, both
economically and culturally, the lower the share is of market services in total service em-
ployment. On the contrary, the lower this level is, the higher the share is in this sphere of
services. (Table 3) In Czechoslovakia, for example, the sphere of market services employs
about 55% of persons active in the service sector, which also indicates that more than 45%
of them act in the sphere of socio-cultural and civil services. Similar indices characterize
the GDR. In Poland and Romania the shares of employment in market services exceeds
60% of the total service employment, which indicates that people active in socio-cultural
and civil services do not even reach the value of 40% of that employment. Hungary with
59% share of service employment in the sphere of market services is in an intermediate
position. The differences in the relative sizes of the two main spheres of service find con-
firmation in the differences in the number of persons active in each of the spheres men-
tioned per 1,000 inhabitants, which will be discussed in more detail later.
The international diversification of these countries, which is based on the differences
in the structure of service employment, is not big but, nevertheless, very characteristic.
The dominant shares are generally close to the national means. More significant devia-
tions appear only in territorial units containing big cities, centres of cultural activity and
public administration, where the shares of market services are usually much lower than in
the neighbouring areas. This is especially true in the case of Poland but concerns also
Hungary, the GDR and Romania.  (Figure 3)  It is only in Czechoslovakia where both
Prague and Bratislava had higher shares of employment in market services than in the
neighbourhood. Heavily industrialized areas, seaports or border re-loading stations, as
well as agricultural areas with a deficit in the sphere of socio-cultural services are usually
also characterized by higher shares of market services than the national means.
The employment structure of market services
Irrespective of the country and its socio-economic system, the share of market services
in the total of service employment is always higher than the share of the remaining
spheres. The employment in distribution, which from the point of view of population, is
the most important branch of market services, seems to be the decisive factor of the mar-
ket service employment structure. In better developed Central European countries the
share of distribution oscillates close to 40% of the employment in the market services, i.e.
around 10% of the gross national employment (Hungary, Czechoslovakia and the GDR).
In Poland and Romania, however, it drops below 35% of the employment in the market
services  (Table 4),  that is, to the level of 5-7% of the gross employment. In the highly
developed West European countries, however, the share of distribution in the gross em-
ployment rises up to 14-20%.  (Table 2)

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
75

ts
L:
5'
£'
E
1
7
0'
ices
88
001
5L
.
Z9
.
81

IL
v
1
000

bitan

7
er

Per
ha
il s
in
I
iv
d c
£'
01
0'
0
17
f
517
.
.
.
717
I
6£
8£

l an
V
a

ltur
cu

9
Z
6
Z
VOZI`
io-
ds
.
.-
.
5
.
Z1
c
n
19£1
C.89'
908
7.
70'
so
I

22
I
L

In

2,
Thousa
ices
v

ts
n
E
L'
17
L'
9'
01
ser
.
L0 I
L
.
80I
L
L
Z
6
L
01

in

1000
bita

Per
ha
t
ive
in I
ac
ices
v
lly
er
L
0'
0'
01
9'
L'
t
s
ys
95
65
85
9
1
9
iona
ke

ar
fess
m

Pro
In
9'
O'
7'
ds
1'
3
n
91791
191
681
t'
801
L9
37.

7
-
-
I
`
01

£
11
Thousa

ts
0'
Z
0
0
VZL1
000
.
.
.
itan
961
8ZZ
£6I
9ZI
1
b

W10
Per
ha
in
1

s

,
CLOO`
5
f'

ds
.
1
8
618
896`
2
t
ion
an
7.
6.
8.
la
us
22
E
-
71
71

E
I
5,
2,
17,
lcu
Tho
ca
uo

crw
's
5
6'
8'
8
6
-
pr
ds
.
ZEL:91
t'
655'
1
n
2.
£L
780
t
hor
ind
.'
s
71
5£
IZ
-
00T
au
o
d

10.

he
Thousa

d t
n

ls
s
a
ta
t
ic
(r
to
t
is

d
ta
iuno
ia
ie
l
s
k
d
tu
na
j
va
s
lo
k

t
io
ref

ia
ies
n
hos
ia
d
tr
un
)
n
:

Na
ec
la
un
o
ii
ce
Cz
Po
Roma
Co
Sour

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
77
Transportation and communication in terms of employment is the second biggest
branch of market services. It provided work for about 30% of those employed in the
sphere discussed. Among the studied countries, Hungary and Romania had the highest
shares of employment in transportation and communication, while Czechoslovakia and
the GDR had the lowest ones.  (Table 4) In relation to the gross employment the shares of
transportation and communication oscillated between 5-8%, which means that they were
slightly higher than in highly developed countries.
Table 4
Structure of employment in market services about 1980
Professionally active in market services
In transportation
In "remaining
Country
Total
and
In distribution
branches"
communication
•
Thou-
Thou-
Thou-
Thou-
%
%
%
%
sands
sands
sands
sands
Czechoslovakia
1,646.1
100.0
492.8
29.9
707.8
43.0
445.5
27.1
GDR
2,137.3
100.0
613.9
28.7
849.9
39.8
673.5
31.5
Hungary
1,161.4
100.0
404.5
34.8
512.6
44.1
244.3
21.1
Poland
3,489.6
100.0
1,117.8
32.0
1,131.0
32.4
1,240.8
35.6
Romania
1,674.0
100.0
556.5
33.2
575.2
34.4
542.3
32.4
Countries studied  10,108.4  100.0
3,185.5
31.5
3,776.5
37.4
3,146.4
31.1
totals
Source:  National statistics and the author's calculations
Decisive for the size of employment in the "remaining market services" group were
the craft and communal services. Among the countries studied the GDR and Poland had
the most developed craft services, while Romania revealed the less developed ones.
Communal services were of some importance only in cities where they were concen-
trated. Together with the "remaining branches" of market services, they provided employ-
ment for about one third of people active in the sphere. Hungary is an exception with a
share of only 21% of the "remaining branches" in total employment in market services,
which resulted mostly from a deficit of craft services.
Twelve regional combinations of the structure of employment in the market services
have been distinguished. Their appearance, although to some extent chaotic, has some
regularities, resulting from the range of employment in particular branches. In case of a
country in which employment in distribution forms the biggest group, most often there
appear territorial units in which a combination of distribution with the "remaining bran-

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
78
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
ches" of market services dominates (the GDR and Czechoslovakia). While in those coun-
tries in which distribution and transportation with communication employ almost an equal
number of people, the most numerous are the units in which these two branches dominate
• (Poland and Romania). In such countries units with large employment in the "remaining
branches" are also numerous. These units are usually agricultural in character with low
shares of transportation and a deficit of distribution, or they are units with low shares in
market services in general, like big cities where special and rare services are important,
while distribution and transportation are not so developed (in terms of employment).
Some regularities also resulted from the structure of gross employment. In countries
where shares of service employment are high (the GDR and Czechoslovakia), the compo-
sition of structural classes differs from those with low shares (Poland and Romania).
Employment structure in the sphere of socio-cultural services
The main components of the sphere of socio-cultural and civil services are as follows:
science, education, health care, social security and public administration (both central and
local). National employment statistics of the countries in question do not allow for a spe-
cification of the employment in administration. In the case of the GDR the regional data
for science, education and health care services are only estimates. The data for Hungary
do not even allow for any specification of particular employment groups forming the
socio-cultural sphere of services for the whole country. Therefore, the analysis of the em-
ployment structure of the sphere in question has been limited to three main professional
groups: science and education, health care services and social security, and the "remaining
branches" of the sphere discussed. For Hungary such a distinction was not even possible.
Therefore in the analysis this country has been omitted.
The most frequent group of the socio-cultural and civil services, excluding the "re-
maining branches", was that containing employees in science and education, education
being dominant. In Poland and Romania this group comprised more than 40% of the total
employment in the sphere; 30% in Czechoslovakia and the GDR. The differentiation of
the studied countries according to the role played by employment in the health care ser-
vices and social security was small; employment in this group oscillated in a very limited
range: from 25.6% to 29.4% of the total employment in the sphere. (Table 5) Significant
differences appeared in the size of employment in the "remaining branches" group of
socio-cultural and civil services: from 27.5% in Poland to 44.6% in Czechoslovakia. The
size of this group depends mainly on the number of people employed in civil services, i.e.
in administration, judicature and related professional groups. In Czechoslovakia people
employed in the civil services represented 29% and in Romania more than 46% of the
total number of people employed in the "remaining branches", while in Poland only 5.6%.
A major part of the discussed group consisted of people employed in culture (15%) and
engaged in sports, touristic and recreational services.
The internal, regional differentiation of the countries studied based not only on the
structures of employment in the discussed sphere. It was also connected with the relative
sizes of particular professional groups. The higher the mean shares of a group in a country,

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
79
Table 5
Structure of employment in socio-cultural and civil services about 1980
Professionally active in socio-cultural and civil services
In health care
In science and
In "remaining
Country
Total
services and
education
branches"
social security
Thou-
Thou-
Thou-
Thou-
%
%
%
%
sands
sands
sands
sands
Czechoslovakia
1,361.6
100.0
406.2
29.8
348.7
25.6
606.7
44.6
GDR
1,682.2
100.0
442.6
32.2
493.9
29.4
745.7
38.4
Hungary
806.9
100.0
-
-
-
-
-
-
Poland
.
2,2273
100.0
964.8
43.3
650.6
29.2
612.1
27.5
Romania
1,402.2
100.0
460.3
44.2
278.9
26.8
303.0
29.0
Countries studied
7,120.4
100.0
-
-  -
-
-
-
totals
Countries studied
6,313.5
100.0
2,273.9
36.0
1,772.1
28.1
2,267.5
35.9
without Hungary
Source:  National statistics and the author's calculations
the more often units dominated by that group appeared. The best illustration of this thesis
is Romania with the highest share of those employed in science and education among
these countries. As a result, this group dominated in the structure of employment in the
socio-cultural and civil services of all territorial units. Only in two of them, out of the
existing 41, did employment in the "remaining branches" co-dominate. Employment in
health care in Romania, although generally lower than in the other countries, in 34 units
exceeded the national mean indicating a relatively even distribution within the country.
Czechoslovakia also reveals large uniformity in the employment structure of the socio-
cultural and civil service sphere. Generally dominant was the group of "remaining bran-
ches", as a result of the large number of employees in administration, sometimes accom-
panied by science and education (Slovakia), or by health care (Bohemia). In the GDR, a
country with a high share of socio-cultural services in the total service employment, in
most of the existing units (12 of 15) two professional groups co-dominated the sphere:
science with education and the "remaining branches". (In the three other units the "re-
maining branches" predominated.) As opposed to the GDR, Poland was the most diversi-
fied country in terms of the employment structure of the sphere discussed. Employment in
science and education was the dominant group in 48 of the existing 49 territorial units. In
two of them the "remaining branches" were dominant and it is the branches that absolute-
ly dominated the last unit left. In many voivodships employment in health care services
was also high, although lower than the international mean, similar to Romania. The lack
of proper data for Hungary eliminated any possibility of an analysis of the internal diver-
sity in the country in terms of socio-cultural and civil services.

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
80
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
SERVICE EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION
Satisfaction of the demand on services depends not so much on the absolute number
of persons engaged in service activities, as it does when the relationship between this
number and the number of population living in a particular territory is considered. The
demand on services itself is the result of the standard of living in the society, of its ways
of living, and especially of the degree of its professional activity. Univocal determination
of these dependencies is not yet possible. Their impact, however, is undisputable and fmds
confirmation in  Figure 4. Based on the example of countries that are highly developed
economically (according to the general opinion they fully satisfy the demand on services),
one may trace clear relations between the indices of professional activity, the shares of
persons engaged in service activities and the standard of living. The richer a country is and
the higher the professional activity of its population, the higher the share of people en-
gaged in services. To a certain extent, one may also guess the influence ways of living
have on the size of service employment. For example, in countries known as thrifty and
economical, like Germany, Sweden or Switzerland, the share of employees in services is
lower than in other countries with similar economic standards (the USA, France, Britain).
The Central European countries analyzed do not exhibit such regularities mostly because
of the underdevelopment of service sector in their economy. On the graph  (Figure 4)  a
relationship can only be found between the standard of living and the share of service
employment. In this respect two groups of countries can be distinguished: those with
. higher living standards (Czechoslovakia, the GDR and Hungary) and others with lower
standards (Bulgaria, Poland and Romania). In terms of professional activity these groups
do not differ, moreover, both show an identical range of diversity: from 46% to about
50%. Based on this one may hazard a hypothesis that the size of service employment in
countries with a deficit of service activities depends only on the level of economic devel-
opment and the number of population, and does not correlate with the index of profes-
sional activity. This also indicates an underestimation of the impact of this index on the
demand on certain services in these countries. As a result, the size of service employment
is centrally regulated according only to the population number and its financial possi-
bilities.
The number of people employed in services in these countries oscillated from 126 per
1,000 inhabitants in Romania, to 228 per 1,000 inhabitants in the GDR. It may be stated,
therefore, that the degree of satisfaction of the demand on services was almost twice as
high in the GDR as in Romania, disregarding the fact that the demand on services depends
not only on the standards of living of a society but also on the supply of services, i.e. on
the access to certain economic units which may secure a rational use of durable material
goods and one's personal time. The degree of satisfaction of the demand on services in
Czechoslovakia is nearly the same as in the GDR, while in Poland nearly the same as in
Romania. Hungary, in this respect, had an intermediate position.  (Table 3)
The international diversification of particular countries reflected the general level of
satisfaction of the demand on services.  (Figure 5) In the GDR, for example, per 1,000
inhabitants in all territorial units there were at least 200 persons employed in services, i.e.
as many as the other countries had almost exclusively in their capitals. The number of

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
81
Figure 4
Service employment on the background of professional activity of population in selected
countries about 1980
.1.
70
• 13
• 1
•
60
• 12
-
• 4
3•

• 5
50
• 6
•
A
_
.14
40
• 9
• 10
30
01
t
20
I
t
30
40
50
60  .1.
e
A — share of people active in
3  — Spain;
8  — Hungary;
services;
4  — Switzerland;
9  — Poland;
B — index of professional
5  — Federal
10  — Bulgaria;
activity
Republic of Germany;
11  — Romania;
6  — Austria;
12  — France;
1 — Sweden;
7  — German Democratic
13  — USA;
2 — United Kingdom;
Republic;
14  — Czechoslovakia

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
TERTIARY EMPLOYMENT
83
persons employed in services in Czechoslovakia was relatively even and oscillated  be-
tween  150 and 200 people per 1,000 inhabitants. In Romania in 11 out of the existing 41
territorial units this number dropped below 100 persons per 1,000 inhabitants and in a
further 24, although it oscillated between 100 and 125, it was still lower than the national
mean. In Romania there were higher numbers than the mean value only in 6 units, charac-
terized by the the highest values with Constanta (150) and Bucuresti (200 persons per
1,000 inhabitants). For Poland and Hungary larger regional differences were typical: a
mixture of units with an employment in services per 1,000 inhabitants near the interna-
tional mean, with units showing a clear deficit of services. The last kind, with a service
employment not higher than 150 persons per 1,000 inhabitants covered almost entirely
North-Eastern and Central Poland as well as Central and Northern Hungary. In the capi-
tals of these countries service employment exceeded 250 persons per 1,000 inhabitants.
Table 6
Classes of employment structures applied in the typology of territorial units
Type of structure
Structure dominated by employ nent in
industry
industry
industry
industry
agricultu-
agricultu-
Gross employment
and
and
agricultu-  re
re and
structure
services
agricultu-  re and ser-
services
re
vices
transport-
transport-
transport-
distributi-  distributi-  remaining
Structure of
ation
ation and
ation and
on
on and
branches
employment in
distributi-  remaining
remaining
market services
on
branches
branches
Structure of
science
education  education  remaining
employment
and
and
and
branches
in socio-cultural
education  health
remaining
and civil services
service
branches
Shares of employes
Classes of shares
in:
Service sector
to 25%
25-30%
above 30%
Service sector
to 150 persons
150-200 persons
above 200 persons
per 1000 inhabitants
In some countries or their parts very low values of service employment related to the
population resulted from their general level of economic development, which found its
reflection mainly in an underdevelopment of the socio-cultural and civil services. The
level of development of the market services in these countries was much less diversified
and particular countries were much more homogeneous in this respect. Apart from the

Andrzej Werwicki : Tertiary Employment in Some Central European Countries about 1980.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 67-84. p. Discussion Papers. Special
84
ANDRZEJ WERWICKI
GDR and Czechoslovakia where the number of employees in market services exceeded
usually 100 persons per 1,000 inhabitants, i.e. exceeded the mean value for the five coun-
tries; in other countries such values were characteristic only of capitals, highly urbanized
regions and seaports. Very low values, below 80 persons per 1,000 inhabitants, were typi-
cal of the agricultural areas of Poland and Romania as well as of neighbouring big cities
functioning as their hinterlands. Employment in the sphere of socio-cultural and civil ser-
vices in the whole of the GDR and Czechoslovakia also exceeded the international mean.
In general, it exceeded 80 persons per 1,000 inhabitants. In the other countries such num-
bers appeared only in capitals or, sometimes (Poland), also in territorial units containing
big cities—important centres of scientific and cultural activities. Other metropolitan re-
gions as well as recreation areas in Poland and Hungary had numbers close to the mean.
The remaining territories of the last mentioned countries and almost half of the units in
Romania had relatively low indices of employment in the socio-cultural and civil services
(40 to 60 persons per 1,000 inhabitants). The other half of Romania, Eastern and Southern
part of the country, had extremely low employment in the discussed sphere (less than 40
persons per 1,000 inhabitants). Equally low indices in Poland appeared only in three units.
Each analysis so far carried out indicates that the general level of development of the
service sector measured by means of employment, was the highest in the GDR and Cze-
choslovakia, the countries with the most developed economies, which were also spared
such war devastations as those suffered by Poland. The level of development of the ser-
vice sector in Romania was the lowest among the five countries. Poland and Hungary held
an intermediate position and were typical in the parallel existence of both units with de-
veloped services and with their deficits.
REFERENCES
BORCHERT, J. G. 1980: Geographie van de tertiaire sector (The geography of the tertiary sector) — Utrecht
NOWOSIELSKA, E. 1972: Zn5tnicowanie popytu i podaty uslug w ukladzie wojew6dzkim (Differentiation of
the demand on and the supply of services in the voivodship pattern) — Biuletyn KPZK PAN, 73 —
Warszawa
. WERWICKI, A. 1982: Geografia uslug funkcjonalnego makmregionu Warszawy. Zalotenia badawcze (Geo-
graphy of services in the functional macroregion of Warsaw. Research assumptions) — Biul. Inf.
1GiPZ PAN, 38 — Warszawa — pp.133-148.
WERWICKI, A. 1987: Geografia uslug makroregionu funkcjalnego Warszawy (Geography of services in the
macroregion of Warsaw) — Dokumentacja Geograficzna, 1, p.92
STATISTICAL SOURCES
Czechoslovakia:
Statisticka Rocenka, 1982
GDR:
Statistisches Jahrbuch, 1982
Hungary:
Evi Nepszamlalgs, 1980
Tertileti Statisztikai Evkonyv, 1981
Poland:
Rocznik Statystyczny GUS, 1980 and 1981
Romania:
Population census of Romania in 1977. Tabel: Recensamintue populatici si la locuitorilor
1977 (Active population by judetes)