Discussion Papers 1993.
Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes 15-28. p.
HISTORICAL AND TODAY'S SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
15
HISTORICAL AND TODAY'S SOCIO-ECONOMIC
CONDITIONS
OF REGIONALISM IN HUNGARY
JOZSEF TOTH
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
Dealing with the questions of regionalism one cannot avoid the conceptual definition
of region; only based on this can regionalism be defined. This is the only possible way
even if regionalism is examined in general terms, or in a concrete correlation system.
'Region' must be defined first also knowing that this complex, multifold concept can be
given a lot of definitions more or less equally valuable in their content and drawn from
different approaches. One of these numerous definitions is offered by the author.
According to this latter interpretation, a region is an area in which, as a consequence
of the similarities of natural endowment and historical development, settlements reveal
similar socio-economic structures. And because of this, the problems of development and
growth and the future are the same. Subsequently, when society is normally fulfilling its
organizing-developing-operating functions it relies on the region in a useful manner, since
it builds on an already formed, existing unit, through which activities are, on the one hand,
cheaper, and, on the other hand, significantly more effective. However, the exploitation of
these advantageous possibilities is hindered by many factors.
Because a region in the above described sense is a product of the development of
productive forces and the development of the division of labour, forming over a long
period of time and interpreted by different measures, locally it only very rarely corre-
sponds to the independently and faster changing territories of international sovereign
states, especially in terms of military power-relations. Between these two types of socio-
economic structures of different origin, nowadays detached more than necessary, there are
three possible kinds of relationship:
(1)
in a larger regional territory several sovereign states are formed;
(2)
the territory of a larger sovereign state joins several regions;
(3)
the sizes of the two units are similar but their borders do not meet.
Taking into consideration that regions can also be interpreted on more than one hierar-
chical level, and that under the level of state territories (administrative division) and above
(international integrations) there are territorial formations with organizing-operating-de-
veloping functions, the two systems on each level can only be connected through con-

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
16
JOZSEF TOTH
filets. It is to be noted that power-systems shaped by a centralized model usually do not
build—they cannot because they want to keep their power monopoly—on the regions in
their organizing-operating-developing decisions, thus they lose all the advantages which
• come from decisions built on organic development, and, as a consequence, they are also
less effective. On an international level isolation, the obsessive attachment to territories
obtained, lack of trust and unequal relations can have similar consequences. Opposed to
this, stands a more and more real alternative of an international integration consisting of
states with democratic inner structures, in which regional relations exist in a natural way
and the advantages of the existence of regions can come along undisturbed, can assert
themselves.
It is natural that regionalism including the complicated concept of region cannot be
easily defined, either. According to the author's interpretation it means an approach, a
conceptual system acknowledging the importance of the existence of regions (and their
different levels), which is aware of the importance of their roles and proves them, mo-
bilises them for the exploitation of their possibilities. So it is not a disciplinary type of
science but an initiative emphasizing the significance of the characteristics (similarities
and diversities) of a region (a territory), and considering it equally significant as the shap-
ing of a state territory, the formation of its division or as the actual formation of interna-
tional co-operations and integrations. Obviously, it is characterized by a multi-discipli-
nary approach and its interpretation is broader than that of the so-called regional science.
However, the importance of regionalism increases with the development of productive
forces in general but at times of historical turning-points, like the present ones in Hungary
and in Eastern Europe, it especially grows. The inner reconstruction of the countries in-
volved, the reformation of their relations with each other, in broader terms, gives a better
chance than ever to realize the conceptual sytem of regionalism in a more complete way.
. To be able to achieve this we have to get rid of the distrust between our countries, and we
have to support the integrational processes similar to those in the Western part of Europe.
This is a precondition of a somewhat homogeneous development of Europe and thus of
the well-being of its countries. Hungary has always been part of Europe despite the awk-
ward demagogue slogan adopted by Western press and also used by the majority of turbu-
lent political forces in our country. We do not want to "return" to Europe; we want to bring
down the artificial wall built between the two parts of Europe—for which we are not to
blame—to be able to create a homogeneous Europe.
This short review summarizes the opinion of a researcher who is both a Hungarian and
a geographer, and thus committed to regionalism for these two reasons. Since the sum-
mary deals with the Hungarian aspect, it cannot be complete because naturally it deals
with the viewpoints of a geographer, and it cannot include a detailed exposition and ar-
gumentation because it is beyond the limits of this research. Several figures will be added
to complete the approach presented below.
HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF REGIONALISM IN HUNGARY
Because of the concept of region, regionalism can only be examined correctly in a

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
18
JOZSEF TOTH
On the other hand, the situation was different for the regional relations concerning the
borders of the Empire as well, the Central and East-Central European relations, since the
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy did not "cover" the total continental region of East-Central
Europe with its uncertain borders. (Figure 2) In these directions (Galicia-Poland, South
Tirol-Italy, and related to Hungary: Transylvania-Romania, Southern Parts-Serbia) the
state power, first of all for reasons related to the policy towards the nationalities, was
trying to prevent the strengthening of regional relations.
Naturally, the result was to be ambiguous as well. On the one hand, in spite of every-
thing, the processes inducing regional connections strengthened, and, on the other hand,
efforts towards uniformity left traces on certain territories later becoming parts of other
sovereign units, and these can still be felt. (The case of Poland unified after several divi-
Figure 2
The borders of the East-Central European region by different interpretations
Eastern Europe ?
Central - East Europe?
East Central Europe?
Central Europe ?
Europe ?

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
20
J6ZSEF TOTH
Between the two world wars
Regarding regional development, the quarter of a century between the two world wars
was undoubtedly disadvantageous. The new borders cut thousand-year old unities into
two, and the predominance of Budapest in the country reduced to one third of its original
territory, was becoming overwhelming, while centralization was becoming stronger and
stronger for several reasons. However, with the university of Kolozsvar moved to Szeged
and the one in Pozsony to Pecs, and with the transfer of other functions, the fields of
activities of larger cities remaining inside the country were increased but this could hardly
compensate for the loss of their hinterlands. In the Carpathian Basin, which suddenly
became international, regional development was also blocked by the fact that both the
defeated Hungary and the liberated Successor States were wriggling in the spasms of hate
and fear, co-operation was becoming impossible, and series of absurd situations were
emerging around the border areas. The leading slogan of Hungarian politics was revenge,
and the Successor States, in accordance with the French superpower, the interests of
which prevailed in this area until a historical moment, formed the Little Entente which
was surrounding and isolating Hungary. As a consequence, the only possibility of regional
co-operation remained was towards Austria. As to regionalism, prior to or during the war
there was no modification in this situation; the short-lived borderline changes mostly
stayed within the confines of national frontiers.
After World War 11
In what evolved after World War II, there were some elements which seemed to be
leading towards regional co-operation and towards the advance of regionalism in general
(for example the Romanian-Hungarian rapprochement under the prime ministry of Petru
Groza, the federalism in Jugoslavia, the conquering ideology the phraseology of which
later became emptier and emptier, the fetishism of the economic zone theory regarding
inner territorial division etc.) but all of these could not exert their effects at the same time,
and neither could they prevail for a longer period of time. They were suppressed by strong
and, from the point of view of regionalism, disadvantageous elements which charac-
terized the very nature of the forming power of state and alliance system, like centraliza-
tion, favouritism in relations with the Soviet Union at the expense of contacts with each
other. Motivational factors were also such elements—which can be seen as accidental but
which are characteristic —, such as the deportation of the Hungarian population from
Czechoslovakia under the disguise of a population-exchange, the deportation of the Ger-
. mans from the whole area, the referendum in Ruthenia whose scale can still today be
considered amazing, and, as a consequence, the appearance of the Soviet Union in the
Carpathian Basin, the deterioration of the relations with Jugoslavia, following the Cold
War the creation of the "Iron Curtain", the Hungarian-Austrian relations becoming im-
possible, border areas finding themselves in a disadvantageous position, military occupa-
tion, the distrust and mystification approaching the limits of absurdity, but the former ones
were the more determining factors.

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
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JOZSEF TOTH
apparent contradiction that, besides the central power apparatus concentrated in the capi-
tal, the counties reorganized" in 1950 became the principal guarantee of centralization.
(Figure 4) Since we were talking about territorial units created from above in the cen-
tralized model, placed there by the central apparatus and playing a secondary role in redis-
tribution, they had nothing to do with the forming of regions, or even an intermediary
form of self-government. As important stabilizing elements of the power structure, they
could always prevent the introduction of the otherwise ideologically accepted and sup-
ported economic sphere system, and the adjustment of the administrative-territorial sys-
tem to it.
Though among the great number of rayon-projects (Figure 5) there were some sup-
ported by the authorities, they were professionally sound, and their elements can still be
accepted today. (KRAJKO, GY. et al. 1969)
The rayon-projects were put forward either too early or too late, the counties with
small sovereign units in the country remained in possession of their power positions, and
hindered the emergence of regionalism and the growth of regional centres. Even today
they are nothing more than certain county seats which have developed more than the aver-
age.
Figure 5
The major rayon-projects in Hungary
1 — planning economic regions by the National Plan Office;
2 — proposal by Keiroly Perczel;
3 — proposal by the Karl Marx University of Economics, Budapest;
4 — proposal by the Department of Economic Geography, J6zsef Attila University, Szeged
(Gyula Krajk6)

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
HISTORICAL AND TODAY'S SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
23
REGIONALISM IN HUNGARY TODAY
The situation of regionalism seems to be evolving in Hungary because of internal pol-
itical changes that began quite a long time ago and accelerated in the last couple of years,
and also because of the changed conditions in relations with the neighbouring countries.
The evolution of the democratization process and further, the reconstruction of the power
structure coming from below through democratic elections, the strengthening of the rep-
resentation of local interests, the emergence of local authority as a factor, the reformation
of the financial system, the decentralized model, the gradual development of the self-gov-
ernmental system are all supporting regionalism. All the mistakes and omissions made,
which accumulated during the operational period of the centralized power structure, exert
their effect in the same direction, and so does the will to search resolutions, corrections.
The necessity of a regional attitude became obvious on the most elementary level of
territorial development, among the settlements. It became generally accepted that the
practically only type of relation form until now, the hierarchical order has to be sup-
plemented by numerous elements of the horizontal relation system. In spite of the still
rather strong resistance, the settlement (local) financial basis of regional development
built (also) on horizontal relation systems is appearing gradually.
In the new situation the contradiction, which, for a long time, has been present be-
tween the units of the next level, different in their origins and functions, the counties and
configurational units, emerging as a result of the development of the regional division of
labour, inevitably deepens. The essence of the phenomenon is the following: while the
counties consisting of heterogeneous configurational elements and having a naturally
complex interest structure have institutions for the representation of their interests, these
institutions are incapable of functioning in a productive way because of the counties' hete-
rogeneous nature, and therefore regional interests merge into one another. Since the ho-
mogeneous interests of configurational units are not represented by an institutional sys-
tem, they can either become averaged till they cannot be identified any more, or they fall
into pieces. Briefly, the unit having an identifiable interest has not got an appropriate
representation of it, while where the representation of interests is present, there is nothing
to be represented. The best example of this contradiction is the Mid-Tisza region. (BE-
LUSZKY, P. 1981) This area is in a disadvantageous situation for several reasons: it is a
homogeneous configurational unit, and its territory is divided among four counties. Hence
the interests of this region have never been realized beyond the sphere of scientific re-
search. In the present situation the effort to eliminate, basically reconstruct the county
system, and to substitute it for a certain kind of regional system is getting stronger, how-
ever, it is very difficult to predict whether the chances of this effort will be realized. A
prediction is especially difficult in a multi-party system during the learning (re-learning)
phase of the practice of democracy.
In the last few decades, following the "policy of possibilities", we gradually improved
our relationship with Jugoslavia, and we were looking for the possibilities of co-operation
in the border areas with our neighbours. For years we worked hard on creating an exem-
plary relationship with the neutral Austria, exemplary in the sense that it happened be-
tween two countries with different social systems. We strengthened our efforts to become

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
24
JOZSEF TOTH
economically and politically independent from the Soviet Union, to create a Polish-Cze-
choslovakian-Hungarian block which could co-operate more intensely within the COME-
CON, and to intensify the Austrian-German relations. We engaged more and more in the
regional actions of the Alp-Adriatic Work Team. We expressed our readiness for regional
co-operation with the neighbouring states several times, we proved our openness, in rela-
tion to either the large-region and the whole of Europe, or to other parts of the world. To
be open is Hungary's national interest: there cannot be a change in the world, no matter
how sudden or profound, which would find Hungary unprepared to co-operate.
Figure 6
Research units of the Centre for Regional Studies, Hungarian Acadetny of Sciences and
areas of Hungary investigated by them, 1990
1 — no research;;
5 — researches carried out four times;
2 — research carried out once;
6 — researches carried out five times;
3 — researches carried out twice;
7 — centre;
4 — researches carried out three times;
8 — department
In 1992 three new mils were attached to the Institute's network of workshops: research teams in Szolnok,
Debrecen and Szombathely were set up. A structural change was brought about when, within the framework of
the Centre for Regional Studies, the "Alfold" Institute was founded comprising the four department throughout
the Great Hungarian Plain. (Editor's note)

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
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JOZSEF TOTH
These altogether cover the whole country with their activities.  (Figure 6) The Centre for
Regional Studies is the basic academical research institute of the regional type related to
settlements. However, besides the fact that the researchers themselves experience the
problems of certain regions, in its activities the different regional characteristics and inter-
ests are manifested because the majority of the research projects of the institute is fin-
anced by local and county (regional) agencies.
The Centre for Regional Studies produced a percievable effect on the formation of
Hungarian regionalism; with the conduct of research projects, financed from different
sources, with its expert activity, with the presence of its members in different professional
and decision-making plenums. This effect can be defined more precisely by the review of
the most important research areas in regionalism.
According to the atmosphere of the period and following the institutional traditions,
we are continuously researching those political, sociological, legal, administrative and
geographical factors of the democratization process, which are related to a settlement, to
the local society, and through which the horizontal relations of settlements, the creation of
small-region development can be influenced. (PAL KOVACS, I. 1986; CSEFKO, F.
1987; KOVACS, T. 1988; CSATARI, B. 1989) We also emphasize the regional aspects of
environmental economy. (FODOR, I. et al. 1981; BENKO LODNER, D. 1987)
On the subject of the mid-level territorial division and institution, there are, on the one
hand, administrative-historical-geographical and management-political investigations
going on, and, on the other hand, there was an experiment which made a regional division
of the country in the form of macro-regional and configurational units.  (Figure  7) The
results of this experiment, as educational material, received fairly good publicity. (TOTH,
J. 1988)
For years now we have been dealing with the problems of development in areas which
are in a specific situation for different reasons (ERDOSI, F.-TOTH, J. 1988), with a spe-
cial emphasis on the structural characteristics of areas close to the border  (Figure 8), and
on the exploitation of the possibilities of their development. In this research project we
make special use of the advantages of international co-operation. (ERDOSI, F. 1989)
We became engaged in the activity of the Alp-Adriatic Work Team because this inter-
national-regional co-operation deals with problems that are most intensively related to us.
In this consultative organization, which co-ordinates the regional units (representing dif-
ferent levels of autonomy), we were first of all looking for a possible way for the Western
part of Hungary to be re-connected (for the sake of the mutual interests of its population),
reviving historical traditions, to the more developed areas. (RECHNITZER, J. 1989)
As to broader connections and the regional inter-dependencies: we arranged a national
conference on the problems of East-Central Europe in 1989. Among our more than two
dozen lecturers and contributors there were some who were dealing not only with the
characteristics and the separation of this European large-region but also with its structural
problems, its future, with the influence system of COMECON countries. (ENYEDI, GY.
1989; HANAK, P. 1989)

Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
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1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
HISTORICAL AND TODAY'S SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
27
THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC-POLITICAL PROCESSES PROFOUNDLY
REFORMING HUNGARIAN SOCIETY CAN BE SUMMARIZED AS
FOLLOWS:
the basis for self-government, the creation of the conditions for free
enterprise, the elimination of the centralized power structure. These
processes create favourable conditions for regionalism;
developing regionalism will help society operate more effectively, and
by this, it promotes improvement in the quality of life;
— inner changes and the reformation of the conditions of foreign affairs
improves chances for international regional co-operation;
international regional co-operation is Hungary's elementary need; the
country does its best to strengthen and develop these connections;
— however, what is not our interest, and I am convinced that the same is
true for other countries involved as well, is a regional make-it-even
East-Central European co-operation whose members hide behind re-
gional co-operation and they remain isolated from the action centres of
world economy;
an East-Central European co-operation is necessary but not sufficient
for Hungary. We are committed to a European co-operation and
through this to world economic relations.
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Tóth, József : Historical and Today's Socio-Economic Conditions of Regionalism in Hungary.
In: Spatial Research and the Social-Political Changes. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies,
1993. 15-28. p. Discussion Papers. Special
28
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