Discussion Papers 1988. 
Spatial Organization and Regional Development 162-179. p. 
1 6 2 
Andrzej WERWICFI 
SERVICES RENDEPEL WITHIN THE FUNCTIONAL 
MACROREGION OF WARSAW 
The preser't pal_er is based upon the 1.cults 
of a five-year study on the avaiJability of Nelieu:=i 
kinds of services within the functional macroregion 
of Warsaw. Resultsof some partial studies have al-
1/
ready been published
. The final report is present-
ly in press. The studies mentioned include theore-
tical questions of the geography of service activi-
ties, problems of incomes and expences of residents 
living in the study area, structures of employment 
in the service sector, as well as analyses of the 
degree of development of the particular spheres of 
service activities. A conclusion of these studies 
takes the form of a service-based functional 
typology of towns and communes of the area consid-
ered. The present paper indicates such findings of 
the studies performed that, in the author's opinion, 
are the most important. 
The concept  
On the basis of widely accepted conclusions 
of scholars studying service activities in differ«, 
ent countries, it may be assumed that the service 
sector includes /works and manipulations/ performed 
for economic agents or private persons that do not 
create new material goods directly, but that serve 
in some way the production processes of these 
agents or satisfy various consumption and orderly 
needs of the population. The service sector there- 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
163 
fore encompasses the following branches of the na-
tional economy: 
1. transportation and communication; 
2. distribution; 
3. handicraft service; 
4. housing and municipal economy; 
5. finance and insurance; 
6. education, science, and culture; 
7. health and social care; 
8. administration and the judical system; 
9. political and social organisation; and 
10. other activities not mentioned before. 
From the point of view of their role in the national 
economy, especially of their role in the creation of 
national income, these service branches can be clas-
sified into four spheres: A. productive services; 
B. market services, encompassing previously listed 
branches 1 to  5; C.  socio-cultural services encom-
passing branches  6  and  7;  and D. non-economic ser-
vices /public services/ - branches 8 to 10. Spheres 
B, C, and D, 
constituting together the complex 
of consumption and order services, were subject to 
analysis done within the macroregion of Warsaw. The 
sphere of productive services was omitted in the 
study on the ground of an assumption that these 
activities do in fact constitute an integral part 
of production activities and that they do not have 
a direct influence on the quality and quantity of 
services rendered to the population. 
Messures 
Quantitative determination of the service 
supply development level requires application of a 
variety of numerical measures. The most important 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
16 4 
ones, especially with respect to market services, 
is employment. Fortunately, Polish statistical of- 
fices conduct a computerised registration of employ-
ment in the socialised sector, i.e., state - and co-
operative - owned enterprises, with such a degree of 
branch and territorial detail that allows use of 
these data in the studies on the service activity 
system since, apart from a portion of handicraft 
services and numerous private retail trade, almost 
all of the service sector is contained within the 
socialised part of the economy. In respect of the 
value of services actually provided, only data 
concerning sale volumes in retail trade are fully 
accessible. Data concerning values of services 
performed by handicraft are partial /covering only 
socialized crafts/ or too rough in their territo-
rial disaggregation. For other service branches 
there are no data available on values of services 
supplied. The third measure used, the number of ex-
isting service units, appeared to be significant 
expecially with regard to sociocultural services 
and was used fully in the studies on the functional 
macroregion of Warsaw. 
Absolute data used to determine the servicing 
potential of particular units considered /towns and 
communes/ do not provide any answer as to the level 
of service development compared, to population num-
bers or to the level demanded or actual in various 
parts of the area analysed. In view of the lack of 
statisfactory standards to determine the levels of 
service availability, some relative indices must 
be used. To illustrate existing differences, values 
calculated per capita within a given territorial 
unit or percentage shares in various branches of 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
1 65 
services had bed3used. Similar indicators were 
calculated also for the whole of the macroregion 
and for towns and communes respectively. In 
further work they were used for the determination 
of threshold values for levels of service develop-
ment /and specialisation/ within particular terri-
torial units in various kinds of services. These 
values/shown is rlble 1/ were used for subsequent 
functional classification of towns and communes 
analysed. 
Service equipment of the functional macroregion 
of Warsaw 
There were 5434 thousand people employed in 
the service sector in Poland in 1978. Out of that 
number, 18.4 % worked within the functional macro-
region of Warsaw, whose population accounted for 
16.6 % of the country total. If, however, one 
disregards Warsaw from this comparison, then in 
the rest of the macroregion there were working 9.2 
% of the persons of the country's service employ- 
ment as compared to 12.2 % of its total population. 
This points to the fact that beyond Warsaw, the rest 
of the macroregion belonged to areas with less de-
veloped service activities: a mere 117 persons em-
ployed there in the service sector per 1000 inhabi-
tants, while the contry mean stood at 152 persons. 
In a way, such a situation can be explained by the 
proximity of Warsaw. More detailed analysis, however, 
proves this to be true for only a minor part of the 
macroregion. 
Differences between the country and the macroregi-
onal means can also be seen in the structure of 
service employment. Out of the total service employ- 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
166 
ment, in the whole country, 58 % worked in market 
services and 37 % in the socio-cultural ones. The 
remaining  5 %  worked in public services. For the 
functional macroregion /without Warsaw/, the re-
spective numbers for the first two categories 
were 60 % and  35 %,  and, together with Warsaw,  55 
% and 39 %. However, the higher employment value 
for market services outside Warsaw by no means in-
dicated a higher level of developmentof this type 
of services, but only their relative dominance, 
resulting from sometimes glaring shortages of socio- 
cultural services /Table 2/. 
From the initial attempt to determine dif-
ferences in the levels of service availability 
within the basic territorial units of the macro-
region, based solely upon the employment structure 
/general employment and service employment struc-
tures/, a picture was obtained that is quite dif-
ficult to interpret. Here, differentiation did 
not form a coherent image, so that only a rather 
evident correlation between better service-equip-
ped territorial unit classes with higher agricul-
tural economic development areas could be traced. 
It is only when a broder documentary basis and a 
number of other data /sales volume and numter, size 
and rank of service units/ are referred to that 
spatial differentiation in service equipment of 
towns and communes, according to service types, 
can be established. The procedure to determine 
the service-based functions of towns and communes 
applied was based upon the assumption that at 
least two index values must exceed the chosen 
critical threshold to qualify a territorial unit 
as functionally specialized. 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
167 
In the case of market services, the most 
differentiating element, both within the set of 
towns and communes, was retail trade density. 
Towns could be classif ied with that respect into 
three categories depending on the rank of retail 
trade concentratior in them. Thus, out of 107 
towns, there were 2 8 classif ied as main reta 
trade concentra tions /i.e„ , above the  macro-re-
gionaieverage/; 23  as second rank /approximately 
at the macroregiona 1 average/; and as many as 56 
as third rank retail trade concentrations /i.e., 
below the macroregiona I average/. A more detailed 
analysis of economic functions of towns allows 
one to conclude that the degree of retail trade 
concentra tior was signif icantly positively cor-
related with the share of industry in total em-
ployment. Besides tha t, the higher was the admin-
istrative rank of a town /now and in the previous 
administrative division/, the better was the level 
of retail trade development. With regard to the so 
2/ 
called "existentia 1 services"
and their correla-
tion with retail trade equipment, it should be 
noted that only in the 11 main urban concentrations 
of retail trade there also occurred the main con-
centrations of existential services. On the other 
hand, the Eecond rank concentrations of existen-
tial services correlate with 16 main, 19 second 
rank, and 32 third rank concentrations of retail 
trade, thus cutting through all the retail trade 
ranks of centres. Finally, third rank existential 
service concentrations had a signif leant share only 
among third rank retail trade concentrations /20 
centers/. 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
168 
As to the 111 communes, there uere 101 
with retail trade availability higher than the 
macroregional average for communes, and 56 out of 
that number had approximately average corcentra- 
tions of existential services. There were 164 com-
munes with about the macroregional average retail 
trade availability, having, in that number,  93 
average and 47 poor concentrations of existential 
services. Finally, there were 45 communes with 
poor /i.e., significantly below macroregional 
average/ availability of retail trade, with as 
many as 26, out of that number, also poorly equip-
ped with the existential services. 
Main retail trade concentrations, as well 
as communes with better developed retail trade 
networks, occurred much more frequently in the 
Western part of the macroregion /Ciechanow, Plock, 
and Skierniewice voivodships/ and in the Biala Pod-
laska voivodship /Fig. 1/. Second rank urban con-
centrations of retial trade were also quite fre-
quent in Lomza, Siedlce, Radom, and Warsaw /capital/ 
voivodships. Distribution of communes well equipped 
with retail trade was similar; therefore, a con-
clusion could be drawn that concentration of retail 
trade and existential services is positively cor-
related with the level of agricultural economy. 
The third component of market services, i.e., 
transportation and communication, very rarely at-
tains significant sizes in communes. Altogether, 
merely 19 communes can be treated as well or very 
well equipped with transportation and communication 
services. To the contrary, the transportation func-
tion is developed at least to an average macrore-
gional level in almost every main and second rank 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
169 
C) 1 towns very good and good equipped with retail trade 
Lilill2 communes well wquipped with retail trade 
MIN 
communes very well equipped with retail trade 
FIGURE 1 Areas of a relative surplus in the retail  trade 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
1 70 
urban retail trade concentration. 
Within the sphere of socio-cultural services, 
the most differentiating elements were science and 
health care. Out of  107  towns, only  75  had taken 
into account units of this sphere. There were 24 
science centres in that number out of which  9  were 
first rank health care concentrations and 12 were 
health care concentrations with some shortages in 
the general practitioners' staff. Altogether in 
the macroregion there were 24 first rank health 
cansconcentrations and  37  with shortages of the 
dbre mentioned type of staff. Only 14 towns were 
devoid of a more important health care centre. 
Main concentrations of socio-cultural services were 
located in voivodship capitals and in previous 
poviat capitals, so that these services were quite 
dispersed throughout the macroregion. A certain 
amount of spatial concentration of these services 
may be noticed only in the central part of the 
study area, around Warsaw. 
Education was generally the main component 
of the sociocultural service sphere in the communes, 
accounting for over 70 % of employment in that 
sphere. Communes with domination of this service 
activity formed compact areas within Lomza and 
Ostroleka voivodships, being almost the only type 
of commune represented; while in Radom and Siedlce 
voivodships, they constituted their majority. The 
second important type of commune was characterised 
by concentrations of health and social care servi-
ces, in which specialised hospitals and social care 
houses were located, as well as bigger health care 
cenAres. There were altogether 62 communes of this 
sort in the macroregion. Cultural services appeared 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
171 
on an essential scale only in 17 communes. A further 
6  of them had a developed specialisation in the 
sports and recreation services, and another  5  in 
the domain of science /seats of research insti-
tutes/. The majority of communes in which people 
employed in education constituted less than half 
of the total of those employed in the socio-cul-
tural services were located in CiechanOw, Plock, 
Skiernicewice, and Warsaw voivodships. In other 
voivodships such communes appeared only sporadical-
ly  /Fig. 2/. 
When formulating research assumptions for 
the study of the development of service activities 
in the macroregion of Warsaw, a hypothesis was 
formulated that assumed concentric zone-like dif-
ferentiation of the study area. According to it, 
around the centre of the macroregion - that is, 
around Warsaw - there should exist a zone of ser- 
vice shortage caused by the proximity of the centre. 
The subsequent zone, surrounding the previous one, 
should display stronger development of service ac-
tivities, because it shoullbe free already from 
the negative influence of the proximity of the 
centre, but still remaining within the reach of 
the activatirginfluence of the centre. This hypoth-
esis found, however, only partial confirmation. 
Certainly, existence of the grat centre of this 
macroregion is beyond doubt. Warsaw, indeed, con-
stituted not only against the background of its 
macroregion, but also against the background of 
the whole country, an enormous concentration of all 
kinds of services. The zone of service shortage 
/inner zone/ appears around the centre mainly as 
a zone of market services deficit, with a simul- 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
172 
111  I 
1111111111,7
I 
114
1140
.41st 
;11 
1/411,,i 11/111:4
1 
4, actin.) 
1174411101111111! 11 
1‘111111 1 44111111110 
11111' 
II 
main regional centres of socio-cultural services 
towns - locations of various research insLitntions, nu- 
e,  2  merous vocational schools and important health care 
centres 
1111 1111111 
tommunes with differentiated profile of socio-cultural 
services 
M  communes specialised in one /apart from education/ 
type of socio-cultural services 
FIGURE 2 Spatial distribution of towns and communes with 
well developed socio-cultural services 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
173 
taneous relatively intensive development of the 
sphere of socio-cultural services. A similar situa-
tion, albeit on a much smaller scale, can be ob-
served in most of the communes adjacent to towns, 
especially those that are governed jointly with 
the neighbouring communes. In the analytic pro-
cedure applied, the presence of the outer zone, 
with a better development of services, was not 
settled down at all. Areas located outside of the 
inner zone, characterised by some service shortages, 
are differentiated only by the levels of economic 
development, reflected in the levels of personal 
incomes of residents. Because of that, within the 
functional macroregion of Warsaw outside the inner 
zone, three areas with different levels of develop-
ment of service activities may be distinguished 
/Fig. 3/: 
1. North-Western area, encompassing Ciecha-
n6w, Plock, Skierniewice, and Warsaw voivodships, 
together with the Northern part of Radom voivod-
ship; 
2. Eastern area, overlapping almost entirely 
with the Biala Podlaska voivodship; and 
3. Central belt, including Lomza, Ostroleka, 
Siedlce, as well as parts of Radom and Warsaw voi-
vodships. 
Within the inner zone, only  5  out of 18 
towns were well equipped with service units - 
27.7 % - while among communes this share was at 
52.9 %. In the North-Western area, the one that is 
best equipped, the share of towns with sufficient-
ly developed services was 62.5 %, while the share 
of communes with satisfactorally developed service 
activities was at 49.1 %• Similar values of these 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
17 11 
1 urban service centres 
communes well equipped with services 
—.13 
 zones under direct influence of towns 
!HUI  4  inper  zone of the macroregion 
5 limits of the outer zone areas 
FIGURE 3 Zones of different •equipment in service activities 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
175 
indicators have been characteristic for the Eastern 
area: 66 % for towns and 44.8 % for communes. On 
the other hand, within the central belt only  40 % 
of towns and 20 % of communes were well equipped 
with services. On average, there were 48,5 % of 
towns in the macroregion with sufficiently devel-
oped services. Against this background the central 
belt must be considered especially hwndicapped main-
ly with regard to market service activities. As far 
as communes are considered, within the macroregion 
there were 36 % with well developed services, 
primarily market services. As compared with this 
number, the whole of the central belt was worse 
equipped by a factor of two. Thus, it may be con-
cluded that the main problem areas with respect 
to service availability are towns of the inner zone 
and communes of the central belt. This, however, 
does not mean that within the other areas of the 
macroregion all towns and communes were satisfac-
torily equipped with services. Besides that, it 
is now difficult to answer univocally the basic 
question of what level of service development and 
what spatial distribution would be optimal or satis-
factory. Maybe the comparative studies conducted now 
on the international scale, and also the detailed 
analyses of population incomes and expenses carried 
out on the basis of earlier gathered data, as well 
as analyses of attraction exerted by service centres 
of various ranks, shall make it possible to answer 
some of the fundamental questions. 
Conclusions 
A ”servicescape" of any given area undergoes 
continuous change that may lead in different direc- 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
176 
tions. Since the time frame presented in this paper, 
the Polish economy underwent tremendous transforma-
tions - a decline and then economic reforms - that 
have significantly influenced the number and opera-
tions of servimunits of various types. That is why 
the image presented here should be treated as a sort 
of document, showing the degree of development of 
services at the end of the period of economic pros- 
perity in Poland and of promotion of individual 
consumption increase. It should also be pointed 
out here that such a document may have a wider ap- 
plication than it could seem at first glanc By in-
dicating regional differentiation in the spatial 
concentration of essential elements considered, 
such a document makes it possible to determine 
areas with insufficient availability of this or 
any other component of the service sphere, and 
thereby establishes the list of areas requiring 
further interest from the side of organisers of 
economic life and planners. It is therefore the 
first step towards improvement of the existing 
situation. Besides that, having registered the e-
quipment level, one may treat it as a reference in 
further studies, which could make dynamic the until 
now static picture and could help in determining 
the relations of service system changes to changes 
occurring in the economic and demographic spheres. 
In view of an oft-repeated regret referring 
to shortage of economic-geographical analyses of 
service activities, it is also not without sig-
nificance that certain theoretical suggestions 
have been put forward in this report. First of 
all, there is an attempt made at a definition of 
the domain of interest of -ale geography of services, 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
177 
ultimately narrowing it to the complex of consump-
tion-and-order services, which really determines 
the standard of living enjoyed by the population. 
An essential meaning is contained also in the 
proposal of determining the service-based func-
tional types of towns and communes, only lightly 
touched upon in this paper, but representing an 
approach that is different from those usually ap-
plied in functional typologies of towns. 
Footnotes 
1. A. Werwicki, Geografia uslug makroregionu 
warszawskiego. Zalozenia badawcze /Geography of 
services of the macroregion of Warsaw. Presupposi-
tion of a study/. Biul. Inform. IGiPZ PAN, 38, 
1982. 
A Werwicki, Warszawski makroregion funcjonalny na 
tle krajowich  zrOznicowan  dochodow i wydatkow lud-
nosci w 1978 r. /Functional macroregion of Warsaw 
against the background of national indices of 
personal incomes and expenses in 1978/. Biul. 
Inform. IGiPZ PAN, 43, 1983 
A. Wewicki, Zatrudnienie uslugowe jako miernik 
zrOzniccwania przestrzennego makroregionu funkcjo-
nalnego Warszawy /Employment in the service sector 
as the indicator of spatial differentiation of the 
functional macroregion of Warsaw/. Biul. Inform. 
IGiPZ PAN,  48, 1985 
A. Wewicki, Zroznicowanie funkcjonalnego makrore-
gionu Warszawy w zakresie handlowej ovslugi ludnos-
ci /The differentiation of the functional macrore-
gion of Warsaw in respect of the retail service 
availability/. Biul. Inform. IGiPZ PAN,  53, 1986 
2. handicraft concerned with rendering 
services satisfying the basic existential needs 
of population. 

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Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
Discussion Papers ,Spatial Organization and Regional Development
178 
Table 1. Values  of  features defining specialization of branch concentrations of service 
activities in towns and communes of the functional macroregion of Warsaw  
Sphere  of 
Sphere  of 
market services 
socio-cultural 
sphere 
services 
of 
Transports- 
exis- 
health 
tion  and 
educa- 
culture 
sports 
public 
retail  tential 
care 
tion 
and 
communica- trade 
and 
and 
service: 
and 
recrea-
tion 
services 
social 
sci- 
arts 
tion 
assist- 
ence 
ance 
% share of  employment: 
-in  the sphere 
towns 
38.8 
32.1 
12.7 
48.9 
25.9 
6.3 
4.5 
communes 
28.4 
37.1 
24.4 
72.5 
17.8 
7.4 
2.5 
 
-  in  service  total 
res 
towns 
6.0 
tu
Employment per  1000 
 
inhabitants 
towns 
f 
 fea
ion 
25.3 
44.5 
17.5 
x 
27.3 
6.9 
3.0 
 o
communes 
8.2 
10.7 
7.1 
x 
3.5 
1.4 
x 
lues 
Sales  value  per  1  in- 
a
habitant  in  thousand 
e 
 v
 macroreg
zl 
towns 
40.8 
erag
 the 
for 
communes 
12.1 
l av
Number of physicians 
tua
per  1000  inhabitants 
Ac
towns 
1.5 
Population per  1  serv- 
ice  unit 
towns 
130 
146 
% share of  employment: 
-in  the  sphere 
towns 
40/50 
20 
communes 
40/50 
70/50 
35/15/10 
50 
5 
-  in  service  total 
m 
towns 
c 
5.0 
, 
C 
, 
Employment 
w 
- minimal 
towns 
m 
100 
-. 
- per  1000 
inhabitants 
T 
w 
towns 
40 
.  c 
10/20 
30/15 
3 
3.5 
,  . 
communes 
9 
0  , 
10/20 
10/5 
4 
... 
2 
n  
" 
Sales  value per  1 
0  , 
inhabitant  in 
.  .',f, 
thousand zl 
CU 
U 
towns 
30/50 
7 
0.) 
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m 
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100/150 

---

Andrzej Werwicki : Services Rendered Within the Functional Macroregion of Warsaw 
In:Spatial Organization and Regional Development. Pécs,Centre for Regional Studies,1988. 162-179. p. 
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---