Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Centre for Regional Studies
of Hungarian Academy of Sciences
DISCUSSION PAPERS
No. 2
Environmental policy in Hungary
by
ENYEDI, Gyorgy and ZENTAI, Viola
Series editor: HRUB1, L.aszki
Pecs
1986
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Contents
1. Introduction and background
1
1.1. Geography
1
1.2. Economy
4
1.3. The historical backround of environmental policy and
legislation
5
2. Maragement and organizational structure of environmental
protection
10
2.1. The nationwide management system of environmental
protection
10
2.2. Local management of environmental problems
12
3. Environment
decision-making process
15
3.1. The actors of environmental protection
15
3.1.1. The state
15
3.1.2. Producers
20
3.1.3. Local councils
22
3.1.4. Citizens
24
3.2. Policy implementation in special fields of environmental
protection
3.2.1. Land and soil
2'
3.2.2. Water
27
3.2.3. Air
29
3.2.4. Dangerous waste substances
30
3.2.5. Others
31
4. Constraints and conflicts
31
Appendix
V
35
Bibliography
37
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Kiadja a Magyar Tudominyos Akademia Regionilis Kutatisok Kozpontja.
Felel& kiado: Enyedi Gyorgy akademikus, f6igazgatO
Sorozatszerkeszta: Hrubi Laszlo
KosvOlt: az Apiczai Csere Janos Nevelesi Kozpont Artoprint nyomdijiban,
2,o (815) iv terjedelemben, 250 peldinyban. - 86. 119
Felei& vezet6: Fekete Mihaly
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary 1-38. p.
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1. Geography
Hungary is a small country, even by European standards -
93,030 square kilometres. From the thirty-three countries of our
Continent the territories of fifteen countries are smaller than that
of Hungary. Hungary lies in the geographical center of Europe:
Budapest is located 3,000 km from Europe's easternmost point
in the Urals and 2,500 km from the westernmost point on the
seacoast of Portugal. In the north-south direction Hungary is
much closer to the southern edge of_Europe than the northern
one on the Scandinavian peninsula. The location between Eastern
and Western Europe is reflected'rn -the, fauna as well as the
climatic and soil conditions; and'eMTM -result, there is a great
variety of landscapes within the small country.
The number of population of Hungary is 10.7 million, and
is slightly declining. The population density (114 people per
square kilometer) is higher than the European average. When
ompared by population density, Hungary is ninth among
the
uropean countries and the second (after the CDR) among the
uropean socialist countries. There are no striking differences
n the territorial distribution of the population. The Budapest
gglomeration is the area of highest density (170 people per
q. km).
The physical geographical features of the country can be
ummarized as follows:
) The main feature of the surface is its lowland character. In
fact, only 15 percent of the country's area rises to more
than 200 meters above sea level, and only 2 percent is higher
than 400 meters. Thus, the landscape is very favourable for
agriculture.
) From the physiographic point of view, Hungary belongs to the
Carpatho-Balkan-Dinaric subcontinent, or more precisely, to
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
the Carpathian Basin. The country can be divided into six
macroregions, of which the largest unit is the Great Plain,
which occupies 56 percent of the total area.
c) The climate of Hungary is temperate. The country lies in
the narrowing western part of the Eurasian continent,
relatively close to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean
Sea. This position results in the predominance of western
air masses of oceanic origin, so the winter weather
is
rather temperate. Consequently, the average annual mean
temperature of the country is 2 ° C higher than its geog-
raphic position would otherwise justify. The Alps deflect
the westerlies carrying precipitation, and therefore the
climate has a droughty character. The low degree of cloudiness
provides the area with considerable solar radiation.(Average
annual temperature is +10 0 C) Precipitation averages 550 mm
annually, and fluctuates considerably from year to year and
from region to region.
d) Hydrography. The entire territory of Hungary belongs to the
catchment area of the Danube, as the second largest river,the
Tisza, also flows into the Danube (in Yugoslavia).
The Danube, The Tisza and their tributaries - flow across
the Great Plain in shallow beds without cut-in valleys.Before
flood control measures were introduced, the floods had
extended over a wide area, and the rivers, particularly the
Tisza, changed their direction of flow several times. The
/-61e land roclamed by flood control amounts to 20 percent
of the country's arable land and to about 30 percent of the
territory of the Great Plain.
rhe largest Hungatian lake, Lake Balaton, is on of the
largest standing waters of Europe. Thc 70—kilometer—long
'southern shoreline is the longest continuous lakeshore beach
in Europe.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
J
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
Hungary's water resources are limited. The surface'river
network is poor, and only the Danube carries water of significant
quantities. The ground water table, mostly in the Great Plain
is close to the surface, and it is usually heavily polluted.
Deep thermal waters can be found in great abundance along
geological fault lines. Many of these waters are reputed to
have curative effects.
An important feature of the Hungarian water budget is that
water resources originating within. the national boundaries
comprise only 4 percent of the surface waters. Thus, both
water _utilization programs and protection against water
pollution can be realized only by international cooperation.
e) Major environmental concerns are as follows:
- soil erosion in the hilly and mountanous areas. The quantity
of eroded soil is about 65 million cubic meters. Supposing
a humus content 4
2.2 percent, the annual humus loss is
about 1.43 million tons. The annual loss in decreased food
production can he estimated at about 8 to 10 million tons
of grain.
- irrigation systems have unsolved problems with the draining
off of superfluous irrigation water, as well as the uncovered
irrigation canals may cause further alkali soil formation.
- continuous ground water and soil pollution be untreated sewage
of settlements. Sewage treatment lags behind the development
of running water systems and domestic and industrial water
consumption. Small rivers are heavily polluted, the Danube's
pollution is medium level, Lake Balaton has also eutrification
problems.
- air pollution causes serious problems in the Northern industrial
regions and in the capital city..There are some improvements
as to dust pollution. We are witnessing a growing effect of
acid rains.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
1.2. Economy
Hungary is a medium industrialized country with an important
agricultural sector. The post-war development was characterized by
a rapid industrialization. Although the high growth rate of forced
industrialization in the 1950s slowed down later, nevertheless, it
achieved a 6 to 7 percent yearly growth between 1950-1980,putting
Hungary among the most rapidly industrializing nations. The gross
industrial product increased eightfold and the per capita
industrial production brought Hungary among the thirty most
industrialized nations in the world. In 1980, the industry employed
40 percent of active population (15 percent agriculture, and 45
tertiary sector). There have been important structural changes
within the industry during
the last three decades. Engineering
and chemical industries have become leading sectors. This
quantitative growth was not accompanied by adequate development
in technology, and the improvement of capital efficiency.
In the industrial sector, the share of heavy industry and
that of energy consuming branches is oversized. Since coal-heated
central power stations produce the majority of electricity, this
industry is a heavy pollutor. (Hungarian brown coal and lignite
have a high sulphur content.) One fhth of the electricity consumed
in the country is imported through the CMEA unified energy 4ystem.
Since the energy import runs into difficulties from CMEA, Hungary
has to develop its own energy producing capacity, either by in-
creasing the relative amount of nuclear energy, or by opening new
lignite deposits.
In the last fifteen years, the Hungarian agriculture
has performed well. Its gross production growth in the 1970Y: was
second to Holland in the world. There has been a spectacular growth
in yields, and now the country produces substantial food surplus
for exportation. Meantime, the number of agricultural population
dropped by 60 percent. Massive use of chemicals (frequently
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
- 5
overdosed) in agriculture and the liquide manure of industrial
feeding lots have become dangerous pollutants of the environment.
Motorization started late in Hungary and is developing
slowly. The government gives priority to mass transportation.
Only half of the Hungarian families have a car. The only heavy
concentration of cars is in Budapest, where the pollution (incl.
smogs in early winter) is serious. The high proportion of outmoded
models contributes to the problen).
Structural and technological changes in production are
among the main economic concerns of the government. There are
some promising successes in the reduction of energy used per
units of production, and in the more rational use of agricultural
chemicals. The priorities given to the technologically more advance
industries will reduce the, harmful environmental impact. Because
of the lack of capital, spectacular progress in this respect cannot
be expected.
1.3. The historical background of environmental policy and
legislation
, It was only in the late 1960s, that an overall policy for
environmental protection started to develop in Hungary. The
formulation of an environmental;policy was made necessary by the
following factors.
a) The rapid deterioration of the environment in countries with
a highly developed industry and the shock, brought about by
several environmental catastrophes, turned public and governmen .
attention to environmental problems in the developed countries.
Wide concern about the environment was expressed at the UN
Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972,
where a new specialized UN Organization, the UNEP was establish
At that time, Hungary still hoped that the pollution in the
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
6
country, having reached a much lower level than in Western
Europe or Japan, could be stopped and reversed.
b) The Hungarian economy at the end of the 1960s and the beginning
of the 1970s can be characterized by prosperity combined with
a rapid rise in the living standard. This was the first time
that the rapid economic development was restricted by the
environment, first of all, by the scarcity of water. And also
for the first time, the rise of the living standard enabled
the government to extend its program for the increase of
consumption to the improvement of the quality of life as
well. This program contained the demands for the quality of
the environment.
. The overall policy for environmental protection combined
three approaches into one single system.
The first one is the protection of the precious element of
natural environment, that has been legall'y guaranteed since the
18th century.
The second is the protection of the population from the damage
caused by industrial civilization, which was stated in Hungarian
legislption after the urban and industrial development of the
19th century.
The third is the concept of the planned development of the
environment, which quit the former idei of a_reactive and
defensive environmental protection, and which started to develop
only in the 1970s.
During the above mentioned period, the very concept of
environment gradually grew wider, containing natural, as well
as man-made, and occasionally, social elements (e.g.typical
social problems created by the size and the social structure of
great cities).
The first signs of a relatively_overall Legislation can
be foilnd in some 18th century laws for the protection of various
precious elements of the natural environment, like forests and
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
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waters. The first law which tried to protect the environment from
the unfavourable consequences of natural processes was the one
about the prevention of damage caused by drift-blown sand. In the
second half of the 19th century, as a result of the industrial
revolution, a socalled industrial act was passed. This law provided
for the prevention of environmental damage caused by industry.
Among environmental laws from the period between the two
world wars, the most important is the No. 4 Act of 1935 about
forests and the protection of nature, containing modern ecological
ideas. Compared with earlier laws, this one determined a wider
range of objects to come under environmental protection, introduced
the notion of nature conservation areas and landscape protection
areas, as well as ordained the establishment of the National Council
for Environment Protection. Laws protecting the environment of
settlements were of little effect. They failed to state whose duty
it was to take measures, nor did they indicate limit values of pol-
lution for the authorities.
For a long time after the second World War the primary
political goal was the economic development, while no attention
was paid to the environmental restrictions and consequences of
this development.
Of all environmental media it was the protection of the
quality of surface waters that was firstly and most frequently
regulated. Since the 1950s, several laws have ordained that
factories producing waste-water should use sewage-filtering
equipment. The No. 4 Act of 1964 introduces finally a new type
of administrative sanction: the waste-water fine. It prescribes
quantitative standards of pollution and determines the fine
according to them. The progress of the changes was made stricter
by later laws, one of which introduced the sewer fine as well.
In the early 1960s, more sectors of environmental protection
becam6 regulated. Acts were issued about the protection of
agricultural land, waters, forests and wildlife, as well as
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
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about a regulation of the protection of nature. Before the beginning
of the 1970s, some important laws were introduced concerning the
construction about the use of chemicals in plant protection and
about public health. They all contain several elements that refer
to environmental protection.
The 1972 revision of the constitution
was an important stage
in environmental legislation. Environmental protection through whicl
the basic civil right of the protection of human life and health
has to be realized, was included in the constitutional law. The
first two laws that mentioned the notion of environmental protectior
though not yet in its full complexity, were the 1971 act about the
principles of the development of settlements, and the one of 1972
about the questions of the protection of man's natural environment.
The National Council for Environmental Protection was founded in
1974 to serve as a direct advisory body of the government. The
Council was established in order to coordinate the environment
protectional activity carried out earlier by different ministries:
These events that were followed by three years of prepafatory
work which led to the formulation of the Act of 1976 on the Protecti
of the Human Environment.
The Act No. 2 on the protection of the human environment
was enacted on the 1st April, 1976, providing for a comprehensive
regulation of the basic question of environmental protection. The
act synthetized all the results of environmental legislation forming
an integral pbrt of the existing law but, at the _same time, set the
whole of environmental legislation in a system of independent and
new structure and inherence. According to the act, environmental
protection has a double meaning: protection against dangerous
phenomena already existing, and the planned development of the
environment. These two areas are only relatively separated.
The Act indicates the basis and the various areas of the
systeT of legal demands concerning environmental protection, as
well as the complex general legal regulation for the main special
fields.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
The second section of the act indicates the parts of human
environment to be protected legally, the main ideas of the protection
and its basic regulations. The main groups of the elements of legally
+
protected human environment are: 1. land
, 2. water, 3. air, 4.bio-
++
There, 5. landscape
, 6. man-built environment. The act sets up a
general rule about the prohibition to cause any pollution, damage
or other unfavourable effect to the protected elements of human
environment, thus altering their natural characteristics for the
worse or spoiling the conditions of human life. The elements of
the environment are to be protected against the damage brought
about by natural forces as well. The detailed regulations of the
act provide a positive form of this general rule for each group
of environmental elements.
'Land' is a piece of earth surface which is utilized by
agriculture, forestry, residential area etc.
++ 'Landscape' is the total surrounding natural environment, -
- percepted and evaluated by men.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
-
1 0
-
2. MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
2.1. The nationwide management system of environmental protection
With the establishment of new institutions and the reorga-
nization of the old ones, the formulation of a uniform nationwide
system of environmental protection was completed by the end of the
1970s. The system falls into two subsystems; a general management
system covering the whole of environmental protection and the
management system of the various special fields. The two subsystems
are closely connected and complementary to each other.
The main elements of the general management system are the
following:
a) The Council of Ministers
According to the Act on environmental protection, it is
the Council of Ministerj that is responsible for the management,
control, coordination and development of the whole environment
protection activity.
b) The National Council for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation (OKTT)
Till the end of 1985 it was one of the eight government
committees. It was a consultative, advisory and contfolling
body of the Council of Ministers in the field of environmental
protection, as it prepared, gave advice on decisions of the
Council of Ministers and controlled their execution. The
activity of the Council was carried out by
- the representatives of the most important national
administrative authorities,
- the representatives of non-government organizations,
- scientists and experts invited by the President of the
Council.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
The Council had sessions two times a year. It made proposals
for the environmental protection tasks of the national economic
plan; initiated the issue or modification of environmental laws;
designated the main direction of environmental protection and
the use of environmental funds.
These tasks will be devided among OKTH; its advisory body and
a new parliamentary committee (see point "D"), but the appro-
priate manner of it is to be elaborated.
c) The National Authority for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation (OKTH)
It is an independent ministerial authority which has tasks
in two areas:
- it coordinates and controls the whole environmental protection
activity;
- it controls directly some special fields of environmental
protection.
A new advisory body of the President of the Authority is planned
to be set up for giving advice, suggestions on the conceptual
questions of environment management. The majority of members
are planned to be invited from among scientists.
d) Parliamentary Committee for Settlement Development and Environ-
mental Protection
After the dissolution of the OKTH this committee was estab-
lished. By its regular activity - it listens to 7 the ministers'
reports, prepares the work of the Parliament - it will take
over some tasks of the OKTH.
The detailed management system of the special
fields of environ-
mental protection is given in the Appendix. The different elements
of natural endowments and human environment are controlled by
different ministries or nationwide authorities, e.g. the land and
forests by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food; the waters by
the National Water Authority; the air by the OKTH.
To summarize the activities of this nationwide management
system, it must be stated that in its present form it has not got
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
the sufficient political force to fight for the interests of
environmental protection against other sectoral interests. There
is no designated control authority in some special environmental
fields (e.g. protection of mineral and medicinal waters,treatment
of non-dangerous agricultural and industrial wastes). The burning
issue of environmental protection in Hungary is the protection
of water and soil, but these elements are not covered by the
authority of the National Authority for Environmental Protection
and Nature Conservation. Sometimes, ministries controlling special
environmental field should represent both their own sectoral and
environmental interest; they should promote the frequently
contradictory activity of increasing production and environmental
protection.
2.2. Local management of environmental problems
As the environmental pollution problems are usually of
local feature local management has an important role in the
general management of environmental protection and in the control
of special environmental fields.
Councils - being at the same time self-governmental bodies
and the local authorities of state administration, as well -
operate in a two-level system:
a) county councils in 19 counties and in the capital;
b) local councils in villages, towns and districts of the capital.
Councils have the following possibilities and ways to par-
ticipate in environmental management on their own territory:
a) Executive committees of county and local councils can make
environmental regulations, which cannot contrast with laws
of higher level.
b) County Committees for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation were established in order to coordinate local
environmental protection. These committees are consultative,
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
- 13 -
advisory bodies of the executive committees and control the
execution of councils' environmental targets.
c) The County Secretaries of Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation work within the executive committees of county
councils for continuous control of environmental protection.
They follow with attention and promote the formation of envi-
ronmental plans in the counties and the capital, support
sectoral administrative department - dealing with environ-
mental problems, as well - of executive committees of local
councils.
d) Councils of their sectoral administrative departments (usually
technical or building) act as authorities in certain environmental
questions, e.g. in some local water management questions, in
protection of air and man-built environment.
In spite of these possibilities councils rarely work efficiently
in environmental management. They and their sectoral administrative
departments have many other local tasks, so the-interest of environ-
mental protection has but secondary importance for them:Sometimes
the lack of appropriate knowledge also prevents them carrying out
their environmental aims. But it is due mainly to the councils'
economic and political status that they fail to achieve considerable
results in the protection of the environment.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
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Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
3. ENVIRONMENT DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
3.1. The actors of environmental protection
In socialist countries - so in Hungary, too - environment
protection is declared to be one of the state tasks. However,
decisions on environmental use are made not only by state orga-
nization's, producers but by councils and citizens as well. The
decisions of these actors are affected by different interests
which determine fundamentally the possible aims, .means and the
efficiency of a strategy for environmental policy.
3.1.1. The state
Since the environmental protection has not been integrated•
into the reproduction' process util now, the state endeavours the
soc:.o-economic practice to admit and observe environmental protec-
tional values and - norms of• social consensus throuelt different means.
a) 2Jlitical and government decisions
The program of the 11th Congress of the Hunearian Socialist
Workers' Party (1975) expressed the recognition of the importance
oz- the environmental protection and development policy, which,
speaking'of our tasks to better the circumstances of livine,
1..clared: "We intend to establish a system of environmental
protection which is able not only to stop the harmful processes,
but to ensure development as well." This hashe principle has
been reinforced and developed by the act on the -)th iive-year
2cnnomic plan (1976-1980), by the act on environmental protec-
tion and the government decision about the execution of the
:ct on environmental protection. The government decision of
9180 about the national conception for environmental protec-
zion and its set of demands was an important stage in the
development of environmental policy. This decision states,that
the protection of the environment must become an organic part of
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional -
lb
Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
the economic activities and planning, and that stress has to
be laid on the environmentally sound tehcnologies. It speci-
fies the twofold task of eliminating all the existing sources
of pollution and of preventing harmful pollution. Finally,
it provides that no new investment, development or reconstruc-
tion should take place without investigation of its effects
on the environment. But this type of law is obligatory only
for some ministries, and no great effect can be expected,
unless further public measures are taken. To indicate the
intentions of the government, the enactment of'some further
laws can be expected, giving way to the environmental point
of view within the economy to a greater extent.
b) National economic plans
Among the goals of the 6th five-year plan
(1981-1985),
environmental strategies were designed in accordance with an
economic policy that intended to meet the requirements of the
difficult economic situation, and with a long-range conception
for environmental protection. A slower increase of investments
was expected, as compared with the earlier plan period. Con-
sequently, the environmental policy was planned to stop the
growing pollution of the environment and allow no more de-
struction of the present quality of the environment. Financial
resources were concentrated in the most endangered areas (the
Balaton region, Budapest and its agglomeration, the Northern-
and Middle-Transdanubian industrial areas, the Pecs-Kom16
region).
In the 7th five-year plan (1986-1990), again, the produc-
tive sectors of the economy get absolute priority. Thus, only
the most urgent environmental problems can be solved, there
is no economic possibility for a long-term, preventive environ-
mental development. This five-year plan is less optimistic
than the previous one: it forecasts further environmental
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
deterioration by 1990 - although environmental investments
will be more important than ever. It intends to start dimini-
dling SO
emissions (according to the international commitment
2
of Hungary) and to keep surface water quality at the present
level. The comprehensive program for the treatment of hazar-
dous wastes will actually start in the coming years. In many
cases (the pollution of groundwater, the acidification of
soils, etc.) the plan forecasts but the diminishment of the
rate of deterioration.
Both five-year plans accepted the principle that environ-
mental protection is financed from the central budget "by
the capacity of the economy".
This conception indicates that
the financial means for the environmental protection are drawn
off from the development. Thus, when economic resources are
limited, environmental interests have but restricted impor-
tance even in the national five-year plans of the economy.
+ •
c) Legal and economic means
Basic rules in special fields of environmental protec-
tion are determined by acts in most cases, while in case of
air protection, noise control this role is played by the
Council of Ministers' order. They express the most important
principles, norms of the given protected field, prescribe the
permitted pollution standards and types of sanction.
National standards prescribing technical requirements for
equipment, products in the interests of life-, health-, pro-
perty-, and human environmental protection arc of great im-
portance in environmental protection.
Licences given by authorities have also a prominent role.
There are activities that should get permissions from environ-
mental management authorities, e.g. every 1Jater construction
The division is relative only, because all economic means are
incarnated in legal measures.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
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should be approved
by the National Water Aughority. Non
expressly environmental protection licences - in building,
land utilization, housing, and traffic licences of motor
cars - have an important role in preventing harmful pol-
lution of the environment.
If environmental rules are broken the following sanc-
tions can be imoosed by environmental management authorities:
- restriction or prohibition of the polluting activity;
- compensation for damages;
- criminal law procedures;
- environmental fines.
As by the Act on the protection of human environment,
1976 enacted, the payment of fines does not release producers
from criminal responsibility and obligation of establishing ap-
propriate protection equipment or prohibition of activity.
Until now, however, authorities hawe seldom applied the first
three types of sanctions; fines are considered ad the most ef-
fective sanction.
Environmental fines are the most important type of economic
means. They are aimed at forming the appropriate behaviour of
producers by punishing the harmful pollution activity beyond
the permitted standards. Their second - but more successful -
task is to establish central funds for promotinw, environmental
investments.
Besides the Water Management Fund and Air Protection Fund
originated from waste-water and air pollution fines, started
with the 5th five-year plan (1976-1980), the National Environ-
mental Protection Fund has also been established from the cent-
ral budget. Government supports environmental investments from
it.
Sectoral ministries can promote the enforcement of environ-
mental interests by tax- and price allowances
granted to pro-
ducers.
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Environmental Impact Assessment is rather new in Hungary.
A regulation of the Council of Ministers corrected several
times since 1974 gives orders for the process of investment:
every investment decision must be based on an inquiry with
proper economic and technical documentation, with its-content
and elaboration matching the demands of the various investment
categories (state, non-company, company, cooperative). Every
investment has to be based on the demand of environmental
protection as well as the settlement planning. The recent
regulation of the National Council for Environment Protection
and Nature Conservation (1983) expressed the Council's inten-
tion to make it obligatory for the planning of every produc-
tional investment to inquire about its environmental effects.
A government order is to be expected soon upon this.
These regulations could only - force the largest state
investments to forecast their possible effects on the.environ-
ment so far, and when they mention environmental effects they
usually cover only the technical aspects and neglect the related
economic questions.
I) Education
The Hungarian educational system started to carry out a
systematical environmental education in 1974. The general re-
form of public education in the middle of the 1970s, was mainly
concerned with the transformation of the structure and material
of the subjects. This made it possible to include environmental
studies and principles in education. In the very first year
of the primary school a subject called "the study of the environ-
ment" is included in the education, which deals with natural
processes on the whole, and the parallel study of the subject
called "technics" teaches the children the relationship of man
and nature. In the higher grades of the primary school and
lat?r in secondary schools, subjects about natural sciences
(biology, geography, physics, chemistry) provide the students
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.with further environmental knowledge. In higher education,
first of all at the agricultural and technical universities
as well as at faculties of natural sciences at universities
special subjects are taught, with a specifically environ-
mental material.
The training of specialized environmental engineers
started in 1974 at the University of Agricultural Sciences
and at several technical universities, and in 1976 in the
field of sylviculture. Among the various forms of the edu-
cation, the most significant is the post-gradual training
of specialized engineers. But the educational system of Hun-
gary cannot yet provide properly skilled environmental
specialists in every science referring to the matter. In
our country, there is a shortage of experts in the fields
of law, economy and other social sciences.
3.1.2. Producers
At present, among all producers, state enterprises can
be said to be the worst pollutors of environment.
Since the interests of producers are frequently cont-
radictory to environment protection, the state tries to force
enterprises to consider the aspecfs of environment protection
through various means and methods. It is in the peculiarities
of state property and the economic mechanism that the reasons.
of these conflicting interests and the deficiency of efforts
to overcome them can be looked for.
As a matter of fact, when a socialist state intends to
put into force sanctions against enterprises, it means that its
own 'children' should be punished. In such a situation, fines
are to be imposed many times but without an overstrict approach
of the state.
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Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
The traditional central planning is of sectoral nature,
that's why, for example, industrial planning sets first and
foremost production targets; the planning of infrastructural
development (e.g. sewerage) is independent of it. Over indust-
rial enterprises as state enterprises rights of state ownership
are practised by relevant ministries which stipulate production
tasks, provide enterprises with investment goods, incl. environ-
mental protection investments as well. First of all the perfor-
mance of production tasks is expected by the ministries, it is
mainly for this purpose that the means of investments are put
at the companies' disposal. Thus, enterprieses cannot be blamed
if environmental investments fall behind.
In Hungary, the system of direct plan orders ended by
1968, sectoral plans are not prepared either.Nevertheless,sec-
toral ministries practised rights of state ownership over state
companies until 1985. They wished to assert production goals
not through plan orders but by financial regulations of manage-
ment
and informal connections (formed among the leaders of
the ministry and the enterprises). Since 1985, the majority
of state industrial enterprises have changed over to the system
of self-administration, the state has assigned the rights
of
ospership to the collectivities of employees or the enterprises.
The much stronger profit-interests and management independence
of state enterprises create a situation similar to market
economy: costs of environmental protection can undermine;" the
market position of the enterprise. The general scarcity of
capital can also make nonproductive investments more difficult.
a) Due to the income distribution
of companies to pay environ-
mentalfines is more favourable than to make environmental
investments. To pay environmental fines would mean hardly
any change in the development funds whereas investments
and developments carried 'out in previous years are heavy
burdens for the development funds. What is more, before
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional
LL
Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
1980 the the price-system allowed companies to charge
the environmental fines to expenses.
b) As stipulated in orders concerning the interests of
company leaders,
the comprehensive evaluation of the
activity of top level officials belongs to the tasks
of the supervisory authorities. Whether a leader is
worth rewarding and the amount of rewards must be
calculated on the basis of the complex activity of
the enterprise, incl. developments, structural trans-
formation, foreign trading activity, supply of population
ect. but excluding environment protection. The majority
of company leaders are not concerned with the consideration
of environmental protection aspects and are not interested
in it, what is more, managers do not make easily invest-
ments diminishing the profit, if they want to be re-
elected in the self-management system where managers
are elected by employees for a period of 5 years.
In an organizational-institutional system of peculiar
hierarchy in which informal channels and shadow mechanisms
of state property operate, the responsibility of enter-
prise managers and that of central management cannot he
separated perfectly.
3.1.3. Local councils
Even after the economic reform of 1968 councils have
restricted independence, limited economic and political power,
despite the declared principles of local self-government.
Their main declared tasks are the execution of state economic
policy and the coordination of infrnstructural supply of the
population.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
L-7
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
The main targets of regional development plans are
still elaborated in sectoral natural indices by the central
planning authorities. On the basis of this, county and local
councils prepare their own five-year and one-year plans by
way of special coordination talks with the higher authorities.
The financial means are centrally planned, too. So, local
resources are strongly centralized and redistributed among
counties and later in settlements.
In these conditions local councils have got limited
resources for development from the central budget. So, on
the one hand, they can hardly solve themselves the environ-
mental problems originating from the lack of appropriate
infrastructure (e.g. sewage system). But the more important
result of this situation is that the relationship of coun-
cils and producers forces the councils to make unfavourable
compromises in matters of environmental protection. As they
need the employment opportunities, financial means and
other help voluntarily offered by local producers they
often have to give up the environmental interests of the
settlement. What is more, for decades the industrialized
counties and settlements have been in a more advantageous
situation as to the distribution of the central budget.
Thus, though councils have the right within their own
territory to regulate the activity of producei-5; from the
point of view of environmental protection, they seldom
practise it because of being strongly interested in the
industrial development of their area.
Nevertheless, great changes have been introduced
in financing settlement development since January 1,
1986. First of all, the importance of centralized redist-
ribution will diminish, local financial resources (taxes)
will gain importance. Local authorities will decide more
freely about the utilization of their financial resources.
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They are expected to express and follow better the local
interests.
3.1.4. Citizens
Efficient environmental protection is unimaginable
without social pressure and the participation of citizens.
Except for a few pollution affairs which created a scandal
(e.g. lake Balaton), there'are no institutional frameworks
for environmental protection by citizens in Hungary.
Citizens' approach to environmental protection prob-
lems is characterized by two peculiarities. On the one hand,
problems of environmental pollution become increasingly evi-
dent, important - in some settlements even tangible - for
everyone. On the other, problems of environmental pollution
are still considered to b.e solved by the state and the en-
terprises due partly to misinterpretations on the part of
the ma:s media.
An essential condition to change this situation is
that social organizations integrated into the hierarchical
socio-political relations should start tending towards
democracy. Although trade unions, communist youth organizations,
the People's Front and the like have environmental protection
programs, they have not changed the quality of citizens' parti-
cipation.
The Constitution declares the right to a clean human
environment, but there are very few legal means in the hands
of those concerned. Individuals have no other right but to
announce their experiences of offences against environmental
laws or regulations. It is up to the authorities whether they
chose to sanction the trespassing or put a stop to the damage.
The authorities' decisions are legally incontestable.
Nowadays, it is for the first time in Hungary that
a debate hopefully aiming at the enforcement of citzens'
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CD
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
interests has emerged in connection with the establishment
of an incinerator of waste next to a small town, Dorog (N-
Hungary). After longer coordination talks, the local council
and other local state organizations approved to start plan-
ning it but the equipment is allowed to be built and put into
operation - mainly due to citizens' pressure - if it complies
with the environmental protection conditions of the council.
Besides, one of the terms of the consent was central state
financing for other environmental protection investments.
3.2. Policy implementation in special fields of environmen-
tal protection
3.2.1. Land and soil
The 6th Act on Land Protection of 1961 regulates the
most important questions of land-use protection. For a long
time it remained but a principle, until it was given a re-
gulative force in 1977 in order to achieve effective results.
Agriculture provides 20 % of the total national in-
come, and 40
of the country's hard currency income is given
by food export. In spite of the great economic significance
of agriculture, the continuous decrease in the agricultural
land is going on. Between 1935 and 1980 the agricultural land
lost 1 million hectares, half of which was used for affores-
tation, the other half for construction.
Agricultural land tends to decrease in every developed
country, but Hungary appears to be wasteful in this respect.
For a very long time state investments for industrial or
settlement buildings used agricultural lands practically free
of charge. There was an alarming increase of territories
taken away from agricultural cultivation in the 1970s. While
between 1962 and 1975 the arable land became smaller with
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Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
12,000 hectares every year, between 1975 and 1980 it
diminished by 41,000 hectares yearly.
The conditions of using agricultural lands for in-
dustrial or settlement investments were made stricter again
in 1981. Besides the actual price, the buyer has to pay a
considerably high fee to the county council. The fee is meant
to protect lands of better quality by progressivity depend-
ing on the quality of the land.
In 1981, when the permission was first combined with
this high fee, there was an 18,000 hectares increase of land
taken away from agriculture; more than what was planned before-
hand. 2,200 hectares were taken away from agriculture without
permission. 20 % of the territories taken away was land of
good quality. This law does not provide a uniform frame for
land-use protection. It intends to slow down the diminishing
of agricultural land, but it is hard to predict its real ef-
fect, whether the high charge for the utilization is able to
stop the expansive constructors. It also regulates the re-
cultivation of unused mining areas, which speeded up recently.
An important part of land protection constitutes
protection of soil
from natural forces and harmful effects
of human intervention. Orders of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Food restricting utilization of chemicals and permitting
the output of properly tested materials, serve the preven-
tion of harmful effects of pesticides and artificial fertilizer
utilization which grow significantly. In allocating liquid
manure from large-scale stock breeding farms, national
standards have to be taken into consideration. In accordance
with the land protection act land it is the users' duty to
preserve land fertility but - the Government supports complex
amelioration - including soil improvement, soil protection
and water management - by tax- and other allowances.
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4 27
3.2.2. Water
The basic law for the protection of waters is the act
No. 2 of 1964 which has been amended several times since
then. Water management affairs belong to the National Water
Authority, just a few tasks of local significance, concerning
directly the population are within the competence of councils.
Twelve regional water management boards of the Authority
are operating in the country located according to hydrological
features.
The economic use of available water reser/t is destined
to be promoted by financial regulators, e.g. fees for water
reserve and use of drinking water.
Besides the water management act, different (e.g.shipping)
• regulations and orders of the Authority provide for water
quality. Producers breaking water management rules can be
punished to pay waste water fines and sewage fines. Producers
discharging water -which contains pollutants over standards
stated by rules - into rivers, lakes, subsurface waters, arc
obliged to pay waste water fines. Rules determine threshold
standards for 18 polluting and 13 toxic materials for waters
getting pollution. Fines are progressive depending on time.
Water quality inspectorates make control serving as a basis
for fines.
Producers discharging pollutiints over permitted .
threshold standards into the consumal sewage system are ob-
liged to pay sewage fines. Rules state threshold standards
for 10 polluting and 17 toxic materials. Control is performed
by Communal Sewage Works.
To improve water management it is of utmost
imper-
Lance that a permission of the Authority •is needed (Or water
use, activities and constructions on water.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
From the Water Management Fund originated from waste-
water fines the President of the National Water Authority
can support producers - completing their financial means -
in their water quality protection investments, in the
construction of common cleaning equipment. Producers can
apply for this support by competition.
A special feature of Hungarian water protection is
that 95 % of surface waters (98 % in August) enters Hungary
from abroad in most cases already polluted first of all by
the insufficient filtering of waste-waters. Therefore lir-
provement can be expected only from international agreements.
The Hungarian reach of our major rivers in modrately polluted,
while a number of smaller rivers, especially in the indust-
rial parts of Northern Hungary, are heavily polluted.
The problem of the pollution of groundwaters is on
the rise. It is brought about by agricultural production,
artificial fertilizers, chemicals and liquid manure from
large-scale stock breeding farms, waste-water from village
households (water filtering in villages being fairly under-
developed). The country is situated over the lowest lying
lands of the Carpathian Basin, where groundwater moves to-
wards the lowest point of the basin (Southern Hungary),
and that is where the pollution accumulates.
Some 6,000-7,000 water samples are taken regularly
at 294 sites annually; these are analyzed for 20-30 components.
So the country's water reserves are qualified by nearly 250
thousand data.
The water management organization is responsible
for warding off the consequences of pollution accidents,
the number of which is almost 200 a year.
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3.2.3. Air
An overall legislation for air pollution control
started to develop in 1971. On the basis of the Act on
the protection of human environment Hungary is divided
into three protected areas.
Air pollution level and its changes are measured by regional
pollution control stations of the Institute for Nationll
Public Health belonging to the Minister of Health.
Producers and citizens causing harmful air pollu-
tion, operating large heating equipment which have a fixed
air pollution source, are obliged to declare their polluting
output and to supply information.
Air pollution fines are to be payed according to the
emission standards stated for 8 pollutants. Producers causing
pollution carry out measures and declare the results them-
selves. It is possible that the National Authority for En-
vironment Protection and Nature Conservation controls
measures but it happens rarely. Budapest and 4 heavily pol-
luted counties have Council Environment Protection Funds from
half of air pollution fines coming from their regions. The
funds promote local environmental investments and are cont-
rolled by:the executive committees of county councils.
There are different, not expressly air protection
regulations, too, which serve air protection, e.g. National
Building Rules, traffic licences of motor cars (CO
contents).
2
The 1973 order of the Council of Ministers on air
quality protection set up a list of the requirements of air
quality protection in the case of 31 sources of pollution,
whereas the real number of harmful naterials is much bigger
It only regulates layers below 150m, and is concerned only
bout the biosphere in the strict sense.
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In recent years, there has been an increase in the
emission of the most common gaseous materials. The main
polluters are the industry, the heating in homes and traf-
fic. 8% of the country's territory is fully covered by
rather polluted air, places inhabited by 40%-of the total
population.
Since 1974, air quality and its changes have been
examined by regional stations for measuring harmful pol-
lution operating in the framework of Public Health Network
belonging to the Ministry of Health. They carry out about
300,000 measurements yearly in more than 80 settlements.
Parallel with the self-control of air pollutors,
an independent network for measuring emission also operates.
Control measures are carried out by regional measuring
stations of the Institute for Air Protection belonging to
OKTH.
3.2.4. Dangerous waste substances
It was not legally regulated until recent times,
the 1991 order of the Council of Ministers. Nowadays we
experience the grave consequences of this failure. Since
1981, industrial enterprises have been ordered to deposit
their harmful wastematerials, but the designation of ter-
ritories for this use progresses too slowly. According to
a programme adopted by the government steps have been
taken towards establishing a network for the disposal of
toxic wastes. The first establishment for the storage of
such kind of wastes is expected to be put into operation by
the end of 1985.
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3.2.5. Others
In the field of the regulation of noise control con-
siderable progress was made in the 1970s. Steps towards the
unification of legal regulations and the establishment of
appropriate organizational frames have recently been taken.
A new Nature Conservation Act was adopted in 1982
and a long-term development plan of nature conservation has
been worked out envisaging considerable landscapes and areas
to be declared protected. At the end of 1981 the number of
protected areas totalled 775, on ,a territory of 430 thousand
ha. (4.6 percent of the country's territory). In 1985, the
country has four national parks.
4. CONSTRAINTS AND CONFLICTS
The obstacles to the implementation of environmental
protectional purposes can be looked for on theree levels.
a) The development, situation of the Hungarian national
economy, politico-economic decisions
In the decades of forced industrialization and extensive
economic policy little attention was paid to envir-onniental
•concerns Hungary - together with other lately industrialized
European socialist countries - started to build up its com-
prehensive environmental protection policy at a mis.fortunate
historical moment, when, in the early 1970s, the period of
rapid economic growth ended. Although the government made
serious efforts to expand environmental investments, there
was no possiblitity to improve the quality of the environment
under the difficult economic circumstances. The postponement
of important investments involved the accumulation of harmful
effects.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
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32
Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
In the early 1980s, Hungarian economy had a remarkable
achievement: it could maintain its international monetary
liquidity, it succeeded in diminishing debts and paying back
with accuracy all due interests and credits in time. But we
had to pay a price for this success: the standard of living
began to decline, there were serious restrictions in invest-
ments and imports. The scarce investment resources were
focussed on modernizing the energy economy and introducing
new technology, but sources for infrastructural and social
we/fare development became strongly limited. The general
economic situation was not favourable for environmental
protection. Despite some progress achieved in certain fields
- e.g. decrease in dust pollution, the halt of further
surface-water deterioration - the basic goal of the plan
was not fulfilled: the quality of the environment has still
been worsening-since 1980.
Various politico-economic alternatives are being
shaped for the Hungarian economy to get out cf the crisis,
which have different effects on the condition of environ-
ment and possibilities to enforce environmental policy. In
debates concerning development alternatives, however, the
issues of environmental protection arc not of primary
importance..
b) Structural features of socialist societies
In East-European socialist countries the state under-
Look the enforcement of environmental protectional interests
in socio-economic practice.
The scarcity of development resources - both at state
level and in enterprises - the hunger for investments are
permanent characteristic features of socialist economies.
The fundemental reason is not the poverty of these countries
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(there are both poor and strongly industrialized socialist
countries), but - in Kornai's terminology - the 'softness'
of budget limits. In the interest of growth, state enter-
prises can always draw money off the central budget, there-
fore the investment part of the budget is never big enough.
It seems that the great problem of the distribution of
central development funds is that non-productive - incl.
environment protectional - investments would, indeed,
reduce the financial means needed for the development of
the national economy The state is in a contradictory posi-
tion when intending to enforce enterprises as the operators
of state property to adopt a certain behaviour because the
state always wants to protect the enterprises. It frequently
happens that sectoral ministries are at the same time res-
ponsible for the protection and utilization of, certain
natural endowments, resources. In such a way, the protection
of environment is merely a moderately strict requirement
among the expectations outlined for enterprises through
formal regulations and informal channels.
As the producers' behaviour is governed by the
expectations outlined, their environmental attitude is
subject to maintenance- and growth-oriented basic interests
Councils as self-governmental bodies cannot solve ef-
fective environmental, protection interests in certain regions
or settlements because due to their socio-economic status they
are forced to make unfavourable compromises with the producers.
The existing channels for social control and enforce-
ment of interests do not provide a large scope for citizens'
participation in environmental decision making so their res-
ponsibility remains also limited.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
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34 -
Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
c) Economic approach of modern economies
A special economic aspect is characteristic of the
socio-economic practice of modern economies (both market and
planned economies). Economy is equivalent to commodity pro-
ducing economy and only. activities statistically measurble
in national income can belong to the sphere of economy. So
natural resources (similarly to human-intellectual resources)
are external capabilities to acquire freely and are destroyed
by the harmful effects of the economy.
The present management systems of modern economies
are too unbalanced to serve as incentive frames for the
discovery and utilization of new way of development which
are raised by ecological problems.
Modern economies try to a s sure the maintenance of en-
vironmental pollution within limits tolerable from the view-
point of the population and short-term future development
- through environment protection which-has-not been-integrated
into the reproduction process.
The three levels can he distinguished only relatively
and in •theory, in reality the most general level is deter-
minant in the hierarchy of causes: It means that after all
the limits of environmental policy can he found in the
,
of
economic approach oi
mode
rn economies. --
The Hungarian case demonstrates, at the same time,
that in a small country efficient environmental protection
depends largely 'apon international cooperation. Since Hungary
is not especially a small state (the -t-emitory of fifteen
European countries is smaller than that of:Hungary; Hungary's
population exceeds that of twenty countries out of thirty-
el•
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
-
35
-
three European countries), we can state generally the
utmost importance of efforts aiming at a unified European
environmental strategy. The mutual interests are so clear
in this respect that crossing the borders set up by ide-
ological, political and security considerations seems to
be possible.
APPENDIX
The management system of the special fields of environmental
protection
The management system of the special activities in-
dicated in the act on environmental protection has the follow-
ing structure:
1. a) the Minister of Agriculture and Food controls the
protection of the
- soil
- natural flora and fauna not declared protected,
cultivated plants, huntable and fishable species
of game and fish not under protection from the
point of nature conservation, domes t icated animals
and their genetic reserves,
as well as, in agreement with the Minister of Health
- microorganisms
and, in agreement with the President of the National
Authority for Environmental Protection and Nature Conservatic
- partially huntahle and fishable protected species
of game and fish
- disappearing domesticated species of animals
- landscape declared to be protected from the point
of nature conservancy
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-
b) the Minister of Building and Urban Development controls
the protection of
- man-built environment
c) the President of the National Water Authority controls
- amelioration
- the protection of quantity and quality of subsurface
and surface waters
d) the President of the National Authority for Environmental
Protection and Nature Conservation controls the protection
of
- air
- nature
e) the Minister of Industry; through the Presiden of the
Central Geological Office,
supervises the activities
to protect the
- rockbed
- mineral resources.
2. The President of the National Authority for Environmental
Protection and Nature Conservation is responseible for the
management of activities concerning the production and
neutralization of waste materials that are harmful for human
beings and the environment, in agreement with the Minister
of Health and the Minister responsible for the production.
3. The activity concerning the reduction of harmful vibrations,
especially noise, is controlled by the President of the
National Authority for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation, in agreement with the Minister of Health.
4. The Minister of Health is responsible for the determination
of permissible limits of harmful effects of chemical,
physical, biological materials polluting the environment,
tnd for the examination of their effects.
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
37
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evi II. torveny vegrehajtasenak tapasztalatairal (Re-
port on Implementation of Act II on the Protection
of Human Environment). (Budapest, OKTII)
(1981-1983) "Az emberi kornyezet vedelme" cimii K-5 jela
OTTKT kutatesi celprogram kereteben keszUlt tanulme-
nyok (Studies Prepared in Governmental Research Prog-
ram Titled "Protection of Human Environment" ), (Pecs,
West-Hungarian Research Institute of Hungarian Academy
of Sciences)
BESSENYEI, Zoltan - ZSOLNAI, Laszle, (1984) "Az tij 6konamia
iskolakoncepciaja" (The Education Conception of the
New Economics). Valosig, No. 6.
ENYEDI, Gyorgy (1985) Regional Policy and Planning in Hungary,
Paper Presented at the First American-Hungarian Seminar
on Regional Development. Budapest-Pres.
GERLACH, Gyargy (ed. , 1984) KOrnyczytminosOg 6s kZ;rnyezet-
v6delem Magyarorszagon (Environmental Quality and .
Environmental Protection in Hungary), (Budapest, Mii-
szaki Kiinyvkiad6)
Mrs. KERTESZ, FORGACS, Katalin (1981) K6rnyezetvjdelem 6s
kOzgazdasAgi eszkiiztar (Environmental Protection and
Economic Instruments), (Budapest, KZ;zgazdasAgi rs Jo-
gi.Kanyvkiad6)
(1980) A kornyezetminoseg jelenlegi helyzete, az elmiilt t;v-
tized kornyezetvedelmi politikajdnak tapasztalatni
Enyedi, György – Zentai, Viola: Environmental Policy in Hungary.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 1986. 39 p. Discussion Papers, No. 2.
38
(Present Quality of the Environment, Results of En-
vironmental Policy in the Last Decade). (Budapest,
OKTH)
(1982) Kornyezetstatisztikai adatok 1975-1980 (Data on Envi-
fronmental Statistics, 1975-1980). (Budapest, Kozponti
Statisztikai Hivatal)
(1980) A kbrnyezetvedelmi jogi szabalyozis fejlesztesenek
egyes kerdesei (Some Questions on Development of En-
vironmental Legal Management). (Pecs, West-Hungarian
Research Institute of Hungarian Academy of Sciences -
OKTH)
LANG, Istvan (1984) A kOrnyezetvedelem nemzetkozi koTkepe
(An International Review of Environmental Protection).
(Budapest, Mezogazdase0 Konyvkiad6)
LISKA, Tibor (1973) "A humanokologia biralata" (A Review of
Human Ecology). Valosag, No. 5.
MOSER, Miklos - PALMAI, Cybrgy (1984) A kbrnyezetvedelem
alapjai (The Bases of Environmental Protection).
(Budapest, Tankbnyvkiad6)
TAMAS, Andras (ed., 1981) A kbrnyezetvedelem jogi kezikonvve
(Legal Handbook of Environmental Protection). (Buda-
pest, Kozgazdasagi es Jogi Kbnyvkiad6)
(1984) Tbrvenyek es rendeletek hivatalos gyiljtemenye (Official
Collection of Acts and Rules). (Budapest, Kbzgazdasagi
es Jogi Kbnyvkiad6)
TROCSANYI, Laszlo (ed., 1981) KOrnyezetvedelem es a jog
(Environmental Protection and the Law). (Budapest,
Akademiai Kiad6)
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Centre for Regional Studies
of Hungarian Academy of Sciences
DISCUSSION PAPERS
No. 2
Environmental policy in Hungary
by
ENYEDI, Gyorgy and ZENTAI, Viola
Series editor: HRUB1, L.aszki
Pecs
1986
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Contents
1. Introduction and background
1
1.1. Geography
1
1.2. Economy
4
1.3. The historical backround of environmental policy and
legislation
5
2. Maragement and organizational structure of environmental
protection
10
2.1. The nationwide management system of environmental
protection
10
2.2. Local management of environmental problems
12
3. Environment
decision-making process
15
3.1. The actors of environmental protection
15
3.1.1. The state
15
3.1.2. Producers
20
3.1.3. Local councils
22
3.1.4. Citizens
24
3.2. Policy implementation in special fields of environmental
protection
3.2.1. Land and soil
2'
3.2.2. Water
27
3.2.3. Air
29
3.2.4. Dangerous waste substances
30
3.2.5. Others
31
4. Constraints and conflicts
31
Appendix
V
35
Bibliography
37
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Kiadja a Magyar Tudominyos Akademia Regionilis Kutatisok Kozpontja.
Felel& kiado: Enyedi Gyorgy akademikus, f6igazgatO
Sorozatszerkeszta: Hrubi Laszlo
KosvOlt: az Apiczai Csere Janos Nevelesi Kozpont Artoprint nyomdijiban,
2,o (815) iv terjedelemben, 250 peldinyban. - 86. 119
Felei& vezet6: Fekete Mihaly
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1. Geography
Hungary is a small country, even by European standards -
93,030 square kilometres. From the thirty-three countries of our
Continent the territories of fifteen countries are smaller than that
of Hungary. Hungary lies in the geographical center of Europe:
Budapest is located 3,000 km from Europe's easternmost point
in the Urals and 2,500 km from the westernmost point on the
seacoast of Portugal. In the north-south direction Hungary is
much closer to the southern edge of_Europe than the northern
one on the Scandinavian peninsula. The location between Eastern
and Western Europe is reflected'rn -the, fauna as well as the
climatic and soil conditions; and'eMTM -result, there is a great
variety of landscapes within the small country.
The number of population of Hungary is 10.7 million, and
is slightly declining. The population density (114 people per
square kilometer) is higher than the European average. When
ompared by population density, Hungary is ninth among
the
uropean countries and the second (after the CDR) among the
uropean socialist countries. There are no striking differences
n the territorial distribution of the population. The Budapest
gglomeration is the area of highest density (170 people per
q. km).
The physical geographical features of the country can be
ummarized as follows:
) The main feature of the surface is its lowland character. In
fact, only 15 percent of the country's area rises to more
than 200 meters above sea level, and only 2 percent is higher
than 400 meters. Thus, the landscape is very favourable for
agriculture.
) From the physiographic point of view, Hungary belongs to the
Carpatho-Balkan-Dinaric subcontinent, or more precisely, to
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
the Carpathian Basin. The country can be divided into six
macroregions, of which the largest unit is the Great Plain,
which occupies 56 percent of the total area.
c) The climate of Hungary is temperate. The country lies in
the narrowing western part of the Eurasian continent,
relatively close to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean
Sea. This position results in the predominance of western
air masses of oceanic origin, so the winter weather
is
rather temperate. Consequently, the average annual mean
temperature of the country is 2 ° C higher than its geog-
raphic position would otherwise justify. The Alps deflect
the westerlies carrying precipitation, and therefore the
climate has a droughty character. The low degree of cloudiness
provides the area with considerable solar radiation.(Average
annual temperature is +10 0 C) Precipitation averages 550 mm
annually, and fluctuates considerably from year to year and
from region to region.
d) Hydrography. The entire territory of Hungary belongs to the
catchment area of the Danube, as the second largest river,the
Tisza, also flows into the Danube (in Yugoslavia).
The Danube, The Tisza and their tributaries - flow across
the Great Plain in shallow beds without cut-in valleys.Before
flood control measures were introduced, the floods had
extended over a wide area, and the rivers, particularly the
Tisza, changed their direction of flow several times. The
/-61e land roclamed by flood control amounts to 20 percent
of the country's arable land and to about 30 percent of the
territory of the Great Plain.
rhe largest Hungatian lake, Lake Balaton, is on of the
largest standing waters of Europe. Thc 70—kilometer—long
'southern shoreline is the longest continuous lakeshore beach
in Europe.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
J
Environmental Policy in Hungary
Hungary's water resources are limited. The surface'river
network is poor, and only the Danube carries water of significant
quantities. The ground water table, mostly in the Great Plain
is close to the surface, and it is usually heavily polluted.
Deep thermal waters can be found in great abundance along
geological fault lines. Many of these waters are reputed to
have curative effects.
An important feature of the Hungarian water budget is that
water resources originating within. the national boundaries
comprise only 4 percent of the surface waters. Thus, both
water _utilization programs and protection against water
pollution can be realized only by international cooperation.
e) Major environmental concerns are as follows:
- soil erosion in the hilly and mountanous areas. The quantity
of eroded soil is about 65 million cubic meters. Supposing
a humus content 4
2.2 percent, the annual humus loss is
about 1.43 million tons. The annual loss in decreased food
production can he estimated at about 8 to 10 million tons
of grain.
- irrigation systems have unsolved problems with the draining
off of superfluous irrigation water, as well as the uncovered
irrigation canals may cause further alkali soil formation.
- continuous ground water and soil pollution be untreated sewage
of settlements. Sewage treatment lags behind the development
of running water systems and domestic and industrial water
consumption. Small rivers are heavily polluted, the Danube's
pollution is medium level, Lake Balaton has also eutrification
problems.
- air pollution causes serious problems in the Northern industrial
regions and in the capital city..There are some improvements
as to dust pollution. We are witnessing a growing effect of
acid rains.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
1.2. Economy
Hungary is a medium industrialized country with an important
agricultural sector. The post-war development was characterized by
a rapid industrialization. Although the high growth rate of forced
industrialization in the 1950s slowed down later, nevertheless, it
achieved a 6 to 7 percent yearly growth between 1950-1980,putting
Hungary among the most rapidly industrializing nations. The gross
industrial product increased eightfold and the per capita
industrial production brought Hungary among the thirty most
industrialized nations in the world. In 1980, the industry employed
40 percent of active population (15 percent agriculture, and 45
tertiary sector). There have been important structural changes
within the industry during
the last three decades. Engineering
and chemical industries have become leading sectors. This
quantitative growth was not accompanied by adequate development
in technology, and the improvement of capital efficiency.
In the industrial sector, the share of heavy industry and
that of energy consuming branches is oversized. Since coal-heated
central power stations produce the majority of electricity, this
industry is a heavy pollutor. (Hungarian brown coal and lignite
have a high sulphur content.) One fhth of the electricity consumed
in the country is imported through the CMEA unified energy 4ystem.
Since the energy import runs into difficulties from CMEA, Hungary
has to develop its own energy producing capacity, either by in-
creasing the relative amount of nuclear energy, or by opening new
lignite deposits.
In the last fifteen years, the Hungarian agriculture
has performed well. Its gross production growth in the 1970Y: was
second to Holland in the world. There has been a spectacular growth
in yields, and now the country produces substantial food surplus
for exportation. Meantime, the number of agricultural population
dropped by 60 percent. Massive use of chemicals (frequently
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 5
overdosed) in agriculture and the liquide manure of industrial
feeding lots have become dangerous pollutants of the environment.
Motorization started late in Hungary and is developing
slowly. The government gives priority to mass transportation.
Only half of the Hungarian families have a car. The only heavy
concentration of cars is in Budapest, where the pollution (incl.
smogs in early winter) is serious. The high proportion of outmoded
models contributes to the problen).
Structural and technological changes in production are
among the main economic concerns of the government. There are
some promising successes in the reduction of energy used per
units of production, and in the more rational use of agricultural
chemicals. The priorities given to the technologically more advance
industries will reduce the, harmful environmental impact. Because
of the lack of capital, spectacular progress in this respect cannot
be expected.
1.3. The historical background of environmental policy and
legislation
, It was only in the late 1960s, that an overall policy for
environmental protection started to develop in Hungary. The
formulation of an environmental;policy was made necessary by the
following factors.
a) The rapid deterioration of the environment in countries with
a highly developed industry and the shock, brought about by
several environmental catastrophes, turned public and governmen .
attention to environmental problems in the developed countries.
Wide concern about the environment was expressed at the UN
Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972,
where a new specialized UN Organization, the UNEP was establish
At that time, Hungary still hoped that the pollution in the
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
6
country, having reached a much lower level than in Western
Europe or Japan, could be stopped and reversed.
b) The Hungarian economy at the end of the 1960s and the beginning
of the 1970s can be characterized by prosperity combined with
a rapid rise in the living standard. This was the first time
that the rapid economic development was restricted by the
environment, first of all, by the scarcity of water. And also
for the first time, the rise of the living standard enabled
the government to extend its program for the increase of
consumption to the improvement of the quality of life as
well. This program contained the demands for the quality of
the environment.
. The overall policy for environmental protection combined
three approaches into one single system.
The first one is the protection of the precious element of
natural environment, that has been legall'y guaranteed since the
18th century.
The second is the protection of the population from the damage
caused by industrial civilization, which was stated in Hungarian
legislption after the urban and industrial development of the
19th century.
The third is the concept of the planned development of the
environment, which quit the former idei of a_reactive and
defensive environmental protection, and which started to develop
only in the 1970s.
During the above mentioned period, the very concept of
environment gradually grew wider, containing natural, as well
as man-made, and occasionally, social elements (e.g.typical
social problems created by the size and the social structure of
great cities).
The first signs of a relatively_overall Legislation can
be foilnd in some 18th century laws for the protection of various
precious elements of the natural environment, like forests and
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 7
waters. The first law which tried to protect the environment from
the unfavourable consequences of natural processes was the one
about the prevention of damage caused by drift-blown sand. In the
second half of the 19th century, as a result of the industrial
revolution, a socalled industrial act was passed. This law provided
for the prevention of environmental damage caused by industry.
Among environmental laws from the period between the two
world wars, the most important is the No. 4 Act of 1935 about
forests and the protection of nature, containing modern ecological
ideas. Compared with earlier laws, this one determined a wider
range of objects to come under environmental protection, introduced
the notion of nature conservation areas and landscape protection
areas, as well as ordained the establishment of the National Council
for Environment Protection. Laws protecting the environment of
settlements were of little effect. They failed to state whose duty
it was to take measures, nor did they indicate limit values of pol-
lution for the authorities.
For a long time after the second World War the primary
political goal was the economic development, while no attention
was paid to the environmental restrictions and consequences of
this development.
Of all environmental media it was the protection of the
quality of surface waters that was firstly and most frequently
regulated. Since the 1950s, several laws have ordained that
factories producing waste-water should use sewage-filtering
equipment. The No. 4 Act of 1964 introduces finally a new type
of administrative sanction: the waste-water fine. It prescribes
quantitative standards of pollution and determines the fine
according to them. The progress of the changes was made stricter
by later laws, one of which introduced the sewer fine as well.
In the early 1960s, more sectors of environmental protection
becam6 regulated. Acts were issued about the protection of
agricultural land, waters, forests and wildlife, as well as
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 8
about a regulation of the protection of nature. Before the beginning
of the 1970s, some important laws were introduced concerning the
construction about the use of chemicals in plant protection and
about public health. They all contain several elements that refer
to environmental protection.
The 1972 revision of the constitution
was an important stage
in environmental legislation. Environmental protection through whicl
the basic civil right of the protection of human life and health
has to be realized, was included in the constitutional law. The
first two laws that mentioned the notion of environmental protectior
though not yet in its full complexity, were the 1971 act about the
principles of the development of settlements, and the one of 1972
about the questions of the protection of man's natural environment.
The National Council for Environmental Protection was founded in
1974 to serve as a direct advisory body of the government. The
Council was established in order to coordinate the environment
protectional activity carried out earlier by different ministries:
These events that were followed by three years of prepafatory
work which led to the formulation of the Act of 1976 on the Protecti
of the Human Environment.
The Act No. 2 on the protection of the human environment
was enacted on the 1st April, 1976, providing for a comprehensive
regulation of the basic question of environmental protection. The
act synthetized all the results of environmental legislation forming
an integral pbrt of the existing law but, at the _same time, set the
whole of environmental legislation in a system of independent and
new structure and inherence. According to the act, environmental
protection has a double meaning: protection against dangerous
phenomena already existing, and the planned development of the
environment. These two areas are only relatively separated.
The Act indicates the basis and the various areas of the
systeT of legal demands concerning environmental protection, as
well as the complex general legal regulation for the main special
fields.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
The second section of the act indicates the parts of human
environment to be protected legally, the main ideas of the protection
and its basic regulations. The main groups of the elements of legally
+
protected human environment are: 1. land
, 2. water, 3. air, 4.bio-
++
There, 5. landscape
, 6. man-built environment. The act sets up a
general rule about the prohibition to cause any pollution, damage
or other unfavourable effect to the protected elements of human
environment, thus altering their natural characteristics for the
worse or spoiling the conditions of human life. The elements of
the environment are to be protected against the damage brought
about by natural forces as well. The detailed regulations of the
act provide a positive form of this general rule for each group
of environmental elements.
'Land' is a piece of earth surface which is utilized by
agriculture, forestry, residential area etc.
++ 'Landscape' is the total surrounding natural environment, -
- percepted and evaluated by men.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
-
1 0
-
2. MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
2.1. The nationwide management system of environmental protection
With the establishment of new institutions and the reorga-
nization of the old ones, the formulation of a uniform nationwide
system of environmental protection was completed by the end of the
1970s. The system falls into two subsystems; a general management
system covering the whole of environmental protection and the
management system of the various special fields. The two subsystems
are closely connected and complementary to each other.
The main elements of the general management system are the
following:
a) The Council of Ministers
According to the Act on environmental protection, it is
the Council of Ministerj that is responsible for the management,
control, coordination and development of the whole environment
protection activity.
b) The National Council for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation (OKTT)
Till the end of 1985 it was one of the eight government
committees. It was a consultative, advisory and contfolling
body of the Council of Ministers in the field of environmental
protection, as it prepared, gave advice on decisions of the
Council of Ministers and controlled their execution. The
activity of the Council was carried out by
- the representatives of the most important national
administrative authorities,
- the representatives of non-government organizations,
- scientists and experts invited by the President of the
Council.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
The Council had sessions two times a year. It made proposals
for the environmental protection tasks of the national economic
plan; initiated the issue or modification of environmental laws;
designated the main direction of environmental protection and
the use of environmental funds.
These tasks will be devided among OKTH; its advisory body and
a new parliamentary committee (see point "D"), but the appro-
priate manner of it is to be elaborated.
c) The National Authority for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation (OKTH)
It is an independent ministerial authority which has tasks
in two areas:
- it coordinates and controls the whole environmental protection
activity;
- it controls directly some special fields of environmental
protection.
A new advisory body of the President of the Authority is planned
to be set up for giving advice, suggestions on the conceptual
questions of environment management. The majority of members
are planned to be invited from among scientists.
d) Parliamentary Committee for Settlement Development and Environ-
mental Protection
After the dissolution of the OKTH this committee was estab-
lished. By its regular activity - it listens to 7 the ministers'
reports, prepares the work of the Parliament - it will take
over some tasks of the OKTH.
The detailed management system of the special
fields of environ-
mental protection is given in the Appendix. The different elements
of natural endowments and human environment are controlled by
different ministries or nationwide authorities, e.g. the land and
forests by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food; the waters by
the National Water Authority; the air by the OKTH.
To summarize the activities of this nationwide management
system, it must be stated that in its present form it has not got
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
the sufficient political force to fight for the interests of
environmental protection against other sectoral interests. There
is no designated control authority in some special environmental
fields (e.g. protection of mineral and medicinal waters,treatment
of non-dangerous agricultural and industrial wastes). The burning
issue of environmental protection in Hungary is the protection
of water and soil, but these elements are not covered by the
authority of the National Authority for Environmental Protection
and Nature Conservation. Sometimes, ministries controlling special
environmental field should represent both their own sectoral and
environmental interest; they should promote the frequently
contradictory activity of increasing production and environmental
protection.
2.2. Local management of environmental problems
As the environmental pollution problems are usually of
local feature local management has an important role in the
general management of environmental protection and in the control
of special environmental fields.
Councils - being at the same time self-governmental bodies
and the local authorities of state administration, as well -
operate in a two-level system:
a) county councils in 19 counties and in the capital;
b) local councils in villages, towns and districts of the capital.
Councils have the following possibilities and ways to par-
ticipate in environmental management on their own territory:
a) Executive committees of county and local councils can make
environmental regulations, which cannot contrast with laws
of higher level.
b) County Committees for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation were established in order to coordinate local
environmental protection. These committees are consultative,
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 13 -
advisory bodies of the executive committees and control the
execution of councils' environmental targets.
c) The County Secretaries of Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation work within the executive committees of county
councils for continuous control of environmental protection.
They follow with attention and promote the formation of envi-
ronmental plans in the counties and the capital, support
sectoral administrative department - dealing with environ-
mental problems, as well - of executive committees of local
councils.
d) Councils of their sectoral administrative departments (usually
technical or building) act as authorities in certain environmental
questions, e.g. in some local water management questions, in
protection of air and man-built environment.
In spite of these possibilities councils rarely work efficiently
in environmental management. They and their sectoral administrative
departments have many other local tasks, so the-interest of environ-
mental protection has but secondary importance for them:Sometimes
the lack of appropriate knowledge also prevents them carrying out
their environmental aims. But it is due mainly to the councils'
economic and political status that they fail to achieve considerable
results in the protection of the environment.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
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Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
3. ENVIRONMENT DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
3.1. The actors of environmental protection
In socialist countries - so in Hungary, too - environment
protection is declared to be one of the state tasks. However,
decisions on environmental use are made not only by state orga-
nization's, producers but by councils and citizens as well. The
decisions of these actors are affected by different interests
which determine fundamentally the possible aims, .means and the
efficiency of a strategy for environmental policy.
3.1.1. The state
Since the environmental protection has not been integrated•
into the reproduction' process util now, the state endeavours the
soc:.o-economic practice to admit and observe environmental protec-
tional values and - norms of• social consensus throuelt different means.
a) 2Jlitical and government decisions
The program of the 11th Congress of the Hunearian Socialist
Workers' Party (1975) expressed the recognition of the importance
oz- the environmental protection and development policy, which,
speaking'of our tasks to better the circumstances of livine,
1..clared: "We intend to establish a system of environmental
protection which is able not only to stop the harmful processes,
but to ensure development as well." This hashe principle has
been reinforced and developed by the act on the -)th iive-year
2cnnomic plan (1976-1980), by the act on environmental protec-
tion and the government decision about the execution of the
:ct on environmental protection. The government decision of
9180 about the national conception for environmental protec-
zion and its set of demands was an important stage in the
development of environmental policy. This decision states,that
the protection of the environment must become an organic part of
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
-
lb
Environmental Policy in Hungary
the economic activities and planning, and that stress has to
be laid on the environmentally sound tehcnologies. It speci-
fies the twofold task of eliminating all the existing sources
of pollution and of preventing harmful pollution. Finally,
it provides that no new investment, development or reconstruc-
tion should take place without investigation of its effects
on the environment. But this type of law is obligatory only
for some ministries, and no great effect can be expected,
unless further public measures are taken. To indicate the
intentions of the government, the enactment of'some further
laws can be expected, giving way to the environmental point
of view within the economy to a greater extent.
b) National economic plans
Among the goals of the 6th five-year plan
(1981-1985),
environmental strategies were designed in accordance with an
economic policy that intended to meet the requirements of the
difficult economic situation, and with a long-range conception
for environmental protection. A slower increase of investments
was expected, as compared with the earlier plan period. Con-
sequently, the environmental policy was planned to stop the
growing pollution of the environment and allow no more de-
struction of the present quality of the environment. Financial
resources were concentrated in the most endangered areas (the
Balaton region, Budapest and its agglomeration, the Northern-
and Middle-Transdanubian industrial areas, the Pecs-Kom16
region).
In the 7th five-year plan (1986-1990), again, the produc-
tive sectors of the economy get absolute priority. Thus, only
the most urgent environmental problems can be solved, there
is no economic possibility for a long-term, preventive environ-
mental development. This five-year plan is less optimistic
than the previous one: it forecasts further environmental
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
deterioration by 1990 - although environmental investments
will be more important than ever. It intends to start dimini-
dling SO
emissions (according to the international commitment
2
of Hungary) and to keep surface water quality at the present
level. The comprehensive program for the treatment of hazar-
dous wastes will actually start in the coming years. In many
cases (the pollution of groundwater, the acidification of
soils, etc.) the plan forecasts but the diminishment of the
rate of deterioration.
Both five-year plans accepted the principle that environ-
mental protection is financed from the central budget "by
the capacity of the economy".
This conception indicates that
the financial means for the environmental protection are drawn
off from the development. Thus, when economic resources are
limited, environmental interests have but restricted impor-
tance even in the national five-year plans of the economy.
+ •
c) Legal and economic means
Basic rules in special fields of environmental protec-
tion are determined by acts in most cases, while in case of
air protection, noise control this role is played by the
Council of Ministers' order. They express the most important
principles, norms of the given protected field, prescribe the
permitted pollution standards and types of sanction.
National standards prescribing technical requirements for
equipment, products in the interests of life-, health-, pro-
perty-, and human environmental protection arc of great im-
portance in environmental protection.
Licences given by authorities have also a prominent role.
There are activities that should get permissions from environ-
mental management authorities, e.g. every 1Jater construction
The division is relative only, because all economic means are
incarnated in legal measures.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
should be approved
by the National Water Aughority. Non
expressly environmental protection licences - in building,
land utilization, housing, and traffic licences of motor
cars - have an important role in preventing harmful pol-
lution of the environment.
If environmental rules are broken the following sanc-
tions can be imoosed by environmental management authorities:
- restriction or prohibition of the polluting activity;
- compensation for damages;
- criminal law procedures;
- environmental fines.
As by the Act on the protection of human environment,
1976 enacted, the payment of fines does not release producers
from criminal responsibility and obligation of establishing ap-
propriate protection equipment or prohibition of activity.
Until now, however, authorities hawe seldom applied the first
three types of sanctions; fines are considered ad the most ef-
fective sanction.
Environmental fines are the most important type of economic
means. They are aimed at forming the appropriate behaviour of
producers by punishing the harmful pollution activity beyond
the permitted standards. Their second - but more successful -
task is to establish central funds for promotinw, environmental
investments.
Besides the Water Management Fund and Air Protection Fund
originated from waste-water and air pollution fines, started
with the 5th five-year plan (1976-1980), the National Environ-
mental Protection Fund has also been established from the cent-
ral budget. Government supports environmental investments from
it.
Sectoral ministries can promote the enforcement of environ-
mental interests by tax- and price allowances
granted to pro-
ducers.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 19 -
Environmental Impact Assessment is rather new in Hungary.
A regulation of the Council of Ministers corrected several
times since 1974 gives orders for the process of investment:
every investment decision must be based on an inquiry with
proper economic and technical documentation, with its-content
and elaboration matching the demands of the various investment
categories (state, non-company, company, cooperative). Every
investment has to be based on the demand of environmental
protection as well as the settlement planning. The recent
regulation of the National Council for Environment Protection
and Nature Conservation (1983) expressed the Council's inten-
tion to make it obligatory for the planning of every produc-
tional investment to inquire about its environmental effects.
A government order is to be expected soon upon this.
These regulations could only - force the largest state
investments to forecast their possible effects on the.environ-
ment so far, and when they mention environmental effects they
usually cover only the technical aspects and neglect the related
economic questions.
I) Education
The Hungarian educational system started to carry out a
systematical environmental education in 1974. The general re-
form of public education in the middle of the 1970s, was mainly
concerned with the transformation of the structure and material
of the subjects. This made it possible to include environmental
studies and principles in education. In the very first year
of the primary school a subject called "the study of the environ-
ment" is included in the education, which deals with natural
processes on the whole, and the parallel study of the subject
called "technics" teaches the children the relationship of man
and nature. In the higher grades of the primary school and
lat?r in secondary schools, subjects about natural sciences
(biology, geography, physics, chemistry) provide the students
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
- 20 -
Environmental Policy in Hungary
.with further environmental knowledge. In higher education,
first of all at the agricultural and technical universities
as well as at faculties of natural sciences at universities
special subjects are taught, with a specifically environ-
mental material.
The training of specialized environmental engineers
started in 1974 at the University of Agricultural Sciences
and at several technical universities, and in 1976 in the
field of sylviculture. Among the various forms of the edu-
cation, the most significant is the post-gradual training
of specialized engineers. But the educational system of Hun-
gary cannot yet provide properly skilled environmental
specialists in every science referring to the matter. In
our country, there is a shortage of experts in the fields
of law, economy and other social sciences.
3.1.2. Producers
At present, among all producers, state enterprises can
be said to be the worst pollutors of environment.
Since the interests of producers are frequently cont-
radictory to environment protection, the state tries to force
enterprises to consider the aspecfs of environment protection
through various means and methods. It is in the peculiarities
of state property and the economic mechanism that the reasons.
of these conflicting interests and the deficiency of efforts
to overcome them can be looked for.
As a matter of fact, when a socialist state intends to
put into force sanctions against enterprises, it means that its
own 'children' should be punished. In such a situation, fines
are to be imposed many times but without an overstrict approach
of the state.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
LI.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
The traditional central planning is of sectoral nature,
that's why, for example, industrial planning sets first and
foremost production targets; the planning of infrastructural
development (e.g. sewerage) is independent of it. Over indust-
rial enterprises as state enterprises rights of state ownership
are practised by relevant ministries which stipulate production
tasks, provide enterprises with investment goods, incl. environ-
mental protection investments as well. First of all the perfor-
mance of production tasks is expected by the ministries, it is
mainly for this purpose that the means of investments are put
at the companies' disposal. Thus, enterprieses cannot be blamed
if environmental investments fall behind.
In Hungary, the system of direct plan orders ended by
1968, sectoral plans are not prepared either.Nevertheless,sec-
toral ministries practised rights of state ownership over state
companies until 1985. They wished to assert production goals
not through plan orders but by financial regulations of manage-
ment
and informal connections (formed among the leaders of
the ministry and the enterprises). Since 1985, the majority
of state industrial enterprises have changed over to the system
of self-administration, the state has assigned the rights
of
ospership to the collectivities of employees or the enterprises.
The much stronger profit-interests and management independence
of state enterprises create a situation similar to market
economy: costs of environmental protection can undermine;" the
market position of the enterprise. The general scarcity of
capital can also make nonproductive investments more difficult.
a) Due to the income distribution
of companies to pay environ-
mentalfines is more favourable than to make environmental
investments. To pay environmental fines would mean hardly
any change in the development funds whereas investments
and developments carried 'out in previous years are heavy
burdens for the development funds. What is more, before
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
LL
Environmental Policy in Hungary
1980 the the price-system allowed companies to charge
the environmental fines to expenses.
b) As stipulated in orders concerning the interests of
company leaders,
the comprehensive evaluation of the
activity of top level officials belongs to the tasks
of the supervisory authorities. Whether a leader is
worth rewarding and the amount of rewards must be
calculated on the basis of the complex activity of
the enterprise, incl. developments, structural trans-
formation, foreign trading activity, supply of population
ect. but excluding environment protection. The majority
of company leaders are not concerned with the consideration
of environmental protection aspects and are not interested
in it, what is more, managers do not make easily invest-
ments diminishing the profit, if they want to be re-
elected in the self-management system where managers
are elected by employees for a period of 5 years.
In an organizational-institutional system of peculiar
hierarchy in which informal channels and shadow mechanisms
of state property operate, the responsibility of enter-
prise managers and that of central management cannot he
separated perfectly.
3.1.3. Local councils
Even after the economic reform of 1968 councils have
restricted independence, limited economic and political power,
despite the declared principles of local self-government.
Their main declared tasks are the execution of state economic
policy and the coordination of infrnstructural supply of the
population.
L-7
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
The main targets of regional development plans are
still elaborated in sectoral natural indices by the central
planning authorities. On the basis of this, county and local
councils prepare their own five-year and one-year plans by
way of special coordination talks with the higher authorities.
The financial means are centrally planned, too. So, local
resources are strongly centralized and redistributed among
counties and later in settlements.
In these conditions local councils have got limited
resources for development from the central budget. So, on
the one hand, they can hardly solve themselves the environ-
mental problems originating from the lack of appropriate
infrastructure (e.g. sewage system). But the more important
result of this situation is that the relationship of coun-
cils and producers forces the councils to make unfavourable
compromises in matters of environmental protection. As they
need the employment opportunities, financial means and
other help voluntarily offered by local producers they
often have to give up the environmental interests of the
settlement. What is more, for decades the industrialized
counties and settlements have been in a more advantageous
situation as to the distribution of the central budget.
Thus, though councils have the right within their own
territory to regulate the activity of producei-5; from the
point of view of environmental protection, they seldom
practise it because of being strongly interested in the
industrial development of their area.
Nevertheless, great changes have been introduced
in financing settlement development since January 1,
1986. First of all, the importance of centralized redist-
ribution will diminish, local financial resources (taxes)
will gain importance. Local authorities will decide more
freely about the utilization of their financial resources.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 24 -
They are expected to express and follow better the local
interests.
3.1.4. Citizens
Efficient environmental protection is unimaginable
without social pressure and the participation of citizens.
Except for a few pollution affairs which created a scandal
(e.g. lake Balaton), there'are no institutional frameworks
for environmental protection by citizens in Hungary.
Citizens' approach to environmental protection prob-
lems is characterized by two peculiarities. On the one hand,
problems of environmental pollution become increasingly evi-
dent, important - in some settlements even tangible - for
everyone. On the other, problems of environmental pollution
are still considered to b.e solved by the state and the en-
terprises due partly to misinterpretations on the part of
the ma:s media.
An essential condition to change this situation is
that social organizations integrated into the hierarchical
socio-political relations should start tending towards
democracy. Although trade unions, communist youth organizations,
the People's Front and the like have environmental protection
programs, they have not changed the quality of citizens' parti-
cipation.
The Constitution declares the right to a clean human
environment, but there are very few legal means in the hands
of those concerned. Individuals have no other right but to
announce their experiences of offences against environmental
laws or regulations. It is up to the authorities whether they
chose to sanction the trespassing or put a stop to the damage.
The authorities' decisions are legally incontestable.
Nowadays, it is for the first time in Hungary that
a debate hopefully aiming at the enforcement of citzens'
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
-
CD
Environmental Policy in Hungary
interests has emerged in connection with the establishment
of an incinerator of waste next to a small town, Dorog (N-
Hungary). After longer coordination talks, the local council
and other local state organizations approved to start plan-
ning it but the equipment is allowed to be built and put into
operation - mainly due to citizens' pressure - if it complies
with the environmental protection conditions of the council.
Besides, one of the terms of the consent was central state
financing for other environmental protection investments.
3.2. Policy implementation in special fields of environmen-
tal protection
3.2.1. Land and soil
The 6th Act on Land Protection of 1961 regulates the
most important questions of land-use protection. For a long
time it remained but a principle, until it was given a re-
gulative force in 1977 in order to achieve effective results.
Agriculture provides 20 % of the total national in-
come, and 40
of the country's hard currency income is given
by food export. In spite of the great economic significance
of agriculture, the continuous decrease in the agricultural
land is going on. Between 1935 and 1980 the agricultural land
lost 1 million hectares, half of which was used for affores-
tation, the other half for construction.
Agricultural land tends to decrease in every developed
country, but Hungary appears to be wasteful in this respect.
For a very long time state investments for industrial or
settlement buildings used agricultural lands practically free
of charge. There was an alarming increase of territories
taken away from agricultural cultivation in the 1970s. While
between 1962 and 1975 the arable land became smaller with
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
12,000 hectares every year, between 1975 and 1980 it
diminished by 41,000 hectares yearly.
The conditions of using agricultural lands for in-
dustrial or settlement investments were made stricter again
in 1981. Besides the actual price, the buyer has to pay a
considerably high fee to the county council. The fee is meant
to protect lands of better quality by progressivity depend-
ing on the quality of the land.
In 1981, when the permission was first combined with
this high fee, there was an 18,000 hectares increase of land
taken away from agriculture; more than what was planned before-
hand. 2,200 hectares were taken away from agriculture without
permission. 20 % of the territories taken away was land of
good quality. This law does not provide a uniform frame for
land-use protection. It intends to slow down the diminishing
of agricultural land, but it is hard to predict its real ef-
fect, whether the high charge for the utilization is able to
stop the expansive constructors. It also regulates the re-
cultivation of unused mining areas, which speeded up recently.
An important part of land protection constitutes
protection of soil
from natural forces and harmful effects
of human intervention. Orders of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Food restricting utilization of chemicals and permitting
the output of properly tested materials, serve the preven-
tion of harmful effects of pesticides and artificial fertilizer
utilization which grow significantly. In allocating liquid
manure from large-scale stock breeding farms, national
standards have to be taken into consideration. In accordance
with the land protection act land it is the users' duty to
preserve land fertility but - the Government supports complex
amelioration - including soil improvement, soil protection
and water management - by tax- and other allowances.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
4 27
3.2.2. Water
The basic law for the protection of waters is the act
No. 2 of 1964 which has been amended several times since
then. Water management affairs belong to the National Water
Authority, just a few tasks of local significance, concerning
directly the population are within the competence of councils.
Twelve regional water management boards of the Authority
are operating in the country located according to hydrological
features.
The economic use of available water reser/t is destined
to be promoted by financial regulators, e.g. fees for water
reserve and use of drinking water.
Besides the water management act, different (e.g.shipping)
• regulations and orders of the Authority provide for water
quality. Producers breaking water management rules can be
punished to pay waste water fines and sewage fines. Producers
discharging water -which contains pollutants over standards
stated by rules - into rivers, lakes, subsurface waters, arc
obliged to pay waste water fines. Rules determine threshold
standards for 18 polluting and 13 toxic materials for waters
getting pollution. Fines are progressive depending on time.
Water quality inspectorates make control serving as a basis
for fines.
Producers discharging pollutiints over permitted .
threshold standards into the consumal sewage system are ob-
liged to pay sewage fines. Rules state threshold standards
for 10 polluting and 17 toxic materials. Control is performed
by Communal Sewage Works.
To improve water management it is of utmost
imper-
Lance that a permission of the Authority •is needed (Or water
use, activities and constructions on water.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
From the Water Management Fund originated from waste-
water fines the President of the National Water Authority
can support producers - completing their financial means -
in their water quality protection investments, in the
construction of common cleaning equipment. Producers can
apply for this support by competition.
A special feature of Hungarian water protection is
that 95 % of surface waters (98 % in August) enters Hungary
from abroad in most cases already polluted first of all by
the insufficient filtering of waste-waters. Therefore lir-
provement can be expected only from international agreements.
The Hungarian reach of our major rivers in modrately polluted,
while a number of smaller rivers, especially in the indust-
rial parts of Northern Hungary, are heavily polluted.
The problem of the pollution of groundwaters is on
the rise. It is brought about by agricultural production,
artificial fertilizers, chemicals and liquid manure from
large-scale stock breeding farms, waste-water from village
households (water filtering in villages being fairly under-
developed). The country is situated over the lowest lying
lands of the Carpathian Basin, where groundwater moves to-
wards the lowest point of the basin (Southern Hungary),
and that is where the pollution accumulates.
Some 6,000-7,000 water samples are taken regularly
at 294 sites annually; these are analyzed for 20-30 components.
So the country's water reserves are qualified by nearly 250
thousand data.
The water management organization is responsible
for warding off the consequences of pollution accidents,
the number of which is almost 200 a year.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 29 -
3.2.3. Air
An overall legislation for air pollution control
started to develop in 1971. On the basis of the Act on
the protection of human environment Hungary is divided
into three protected areas.
Air pollution level and its changes are measured by regional
pollution control stations of the Institute for Nationll
Public Health belonging to the Minister of Health.
Producers and citizens causing harmful air pollu-
tion, operating large heating equipment which have a fixed
air pollution source, are obliged to declare their polluting
output and to supply information.
Air pollution fines are to be payed according to the
emission standards stated for 8 pollutants. Producers causing
pollution carry out measures and declare the results them-
selves. It is possible that the National Authority for En-
vironment Protection and Nature Conservation controls
measures but it happens rarely. Budapest and 4 heavily pol-
luted counties have Council Environment Protection Funds from
half of air pollution fines coming from their regions. The
funds promote local environmental investments and are cont-
rolled by:the executive committees of county councils.
There are different, not expressly air protection
regulations, too, which serve air protection, e.g. National
Building Rules, traffic licences of motor cars (CO
contents).
2
The 1973 order of the Council of Ministers on air
quality protection set up a list of the requirements of air
quality protection in the case of 31 sources of pollution,
whereas the real number of harmful naterials is much bigger
It only regulates layers below 150m, and is concerned only
bout the biosphere in the strict sense.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 30 -
In recent years, there has been an increase in the
emission of the most common gaseous materials. The main
polluters are the industry, the heating in homes and traf-
fic. 8% of the country's territory is fully covered by
rather polluted air, places inhabited by 40%-of the total
population.
Since 1974, air quality and its changes have been
examined by regional stations for measuring harmful pol-
lution operating in the framework of Public Health Network
belonging to the Ministry of Health. They carry out about
300,000 measurements yearly in more than 80 settlements.
Parallel with the self-control of air pollutors,
an independent network for measuring emission also operates.
Control measures are carried out by regional measuring
stations of the Institute for Air Protection belonging to
OKTH.
3.2.4. Dangerous waste substances
It was not legally regulated until recent times,
the 1991 order of the Council of Ministers. Nowadays we
experience the grave consequences of this failure. Since
1981, industrial enterprises have been ordered to deposit
their harmful wastematerials, but the designation of ter-
ritories for this use progresses too slowly. According to
a programme adopted by the government steps have been
taken towards establishing a network for the disposal of
toxic wastes. The first establishment for the storage of
such kind of wastes is expected to be put into operation by
the end of 1985.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 31 -
3.2.5. Others
In the field of the regulation of noise control con-
siderable progress was made in the 1970s. Steps towards the
unification of legal regulations and the establishment of
appropriate organizational frames have recently been taken.
A new Nature Conservation Act was adopted in 1982
and a long-term development plan of nature conservation has
been worked out envisaging considerable landscapes and areas
to be declared protected. At the end of 1981 the number of
protected areas totalled 775, on ,a territory of 430 thousand
ha. (4.6 percent of the country's territory). In 1985, the
country has four national parks.
4. CONSTRAINTS AND CONFLICTS
The obstacles to the implementation of environmental
protectional purposes can be looked for on theree levels.
a) The development, situation of the Hungarian national
economy, politico-economic decisions
In the decades of forced industrialization and extensive
economic policy little attention was paid to envir-onniental
•concerns Hungary - together with other lately industrialized
European socialist countries - started to build up its com-
prehensive environmental protection policy at a mis.fortunate
historical moment, when, in the early 1970s, the period of
rapid economic growth ended. Although the government made
serious efforts to expand environmental investments, there
was no possiblitity to improve the quality of the environment
under the difficult economic circumstances. The postponement
of important investments involved the accumulation of harmful
effects.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
-
32
Environmental Policy in Hungary
In the early 1980s, Hungarian economy had a remarkable
achievement: it could maintain its international monetary
liquidity, it succeeded in diminishing debts and paying back
with accuracy all due interests and credits in time. But we
had to pay a price for this success: the standard of living
began to decline, there were serious restrictions in invest-
ments and imports. The scarce investment resources were
focussed on modernizing the energy economy and introducing
new technology, but sources for infrastructural and social
we/fare development became strongly limited. The general
economic situation was not favourable for environmental
protection. Despite some progress achieved in certain fields
- e.g. decrease in dust pollution, the halt of further
surface-water deterioration - the basic goal of the plan
was not fulfilled: the quality of the environment has still
been worsening-since 1980.
Various politico-economic alternatives are being
shaped for the Hungarian economy to get out cf the crisis,
which have different effects on the condition of environ-
ment and possibilities to enforce environmental policy. In
debates concerning development alternatives, however, the
issues of environmental protection arc not of primary
importance..
b) Structural features of socialist societies
In East-European socialist countries the state under-
Look the enforcement of environmental protectional interests
in socio-economic practice.
The scarcity of development resources - both at state
level and in enterprises - the hunger for investments are
permanent characteristic features of socialist economies.
The fundemental reason is not the poverty of these countries
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 33 -
(there are both poor and strongly industrialized socialist
countries), but - in Kornai's terminology - the 'softness'
of budget limits. In the interest of growth, state enter-
prises can always draw money off the central budget, there-
fore the investment part of the budget is never big enough.
It seems that the great problem of the distribution of
central development funds is that non-productive - incl.
environment protectional - investments would, indeed,
reduce the financial means needed for the development of
the national economy The state is in a contradictory posi-
tion when intending to enforce enterprises as the operators
of state property to adopt a certain behaviour because the
state always wants to protect the enterprises. It frequently
happens that sectoral ministries are at the same time res-
ponsible for the protection and utilization of, certain
natural endowments, resources. In such a way, the protection
of environment is merely a moderately strict requirement
among the expectations outlined for enterprises through
formal regulations and informal channels.
As the producers' behaviour is governed by the
expectations outlined, their environmental attitude is
subject to maintenance- and growth-oriented basic interests
Councils as self-governmental bodies cannot solve ef-
fective environmental, protection interests in certain regions
or settlements because due to their socio-economic status they
are forced to make unfavourable compromises with the producers.
The existing channels for social control and enforce-
ment of interests do not provide a large scope for citizens'
participation in environmental decision making so their res-
ponsibility remains also limited.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
-
34 -
Environmental Policy in Hungary
c) Economic approach of modern economies
A special economic aspect is characteristic of the
socio-economic practice of modern economies (both market and
planned economies). Economy is equivalent to commodity pro-
ducing economy and only. activities statistically measurble
in national income can belong to the sphere of economy. So
natural resources (similarly to human-intellectual resources)
are external capabilities to acquire freely and are destroyed
by the harmful effects of the economy.
The present management systems of modern economies
are too unbalanced to serve as incentive frames for the
discovery and utilization of new way of development which
are raised by ecological problems.
Modern economies try to a s sure the maintenance of en-
vironmental pollution within limits tolerable from the view-
point of the population and short-term future development
- through environment protection which-has-not been-integrated
into the reproduction process.
The three levels can he distinguished only relatively
and in •theory, in reality the most general level is deter-
minant in the hierarchy of causes: It means that after all
the limits of environmental policy can he found in the
,
of
economic approach oi
mode
rn economies. --
The Hungarian case demonstrates, at the same time,
that in a small country efficient environmental protection
depends largely 'apon international cooperation. Since Hungary
is not especially a small state (the -t-emitory of fifteen
European countries is smaller than that of:Hungary; Hungary's
population exceeds that of twenty countries out of thirty-
el•
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
-
35
-
three European countries), we can state generally the
utmost importance of efforts aiming at a unified European
environmental strategy. The mutual interests are so clear
in this respect that crossing the borders set up by ide-
ological, political and security considerations seems to
be possible.
APPENDIX
The management system of the special fields of environmental
protection
The management system of the special activities in-
dicated in the act on environmental protection has the follow-
ing structure:
1. a) the Minister of Agriculture and Food controls the
protection of the
- soil
- natural flora and fauna not declared protected,
cultivated plants, huntable and fishable species
of game and fish not under protection from the
point of nature conservation, domes t icated animals
and their genetic reserves,
as well as, in agreement with the Minister of Health
- microorganisms
and, in agreement with the President of the National
Authority for Environmental Protection and Nature Conservatic
- partially huntahle and fishable protected species
of game and fish
- disappearing domesticated species of animals
- landscape declared to be protected from the point
of nature conservancy
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
- 36
-
b) the Minister of Building and Urban Development controls
the protection of
- man-built environment
c) the President of the National Water Authority controls
- amelioration
- the protection of quantity and quality of subsurface
and surface waters
d) the President of the National Authority for Environmental
Protection and Nature Conservation controls the protection
of
- air
- nature
e) the Minister of Industry; through the Presiden of the
Central Geological Office,
supervises the activities
to protect the
- rockbed
- mineral resources.
2. The President of the National Authority for Environmental
Protection and Nature Conservation is responseible for the
management of activities concerning the production and
neutralization of waste materials that are harmful for human
beings and the environment, in agreement with the Minister
of Health and the Minister responsible for the production.
3. The activity concerning the reduction of harmful vibrations,
especially noise, is controlled by the President of the
National Authority for Environmental Protection and Nature
Conservation, in agreement with the Minister of Health.
4. The Minister of Health is responsible for the determination
of permissible limits of harmful effects of chemical,
physical, biological materials polluting the environment,
tnd for the examination of their effects.
Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
37
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Discussion Papers 1986. No. 2.
Environmental Policy in Hungary
The Discussion Papers
series cf the Centre for Regional Studies
of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences was launched in 1986 to
publish summaries of research findings on regional and urOan de-
velopment.
The series has 3 or 4 issues a year. It will be of interest
geographers, economists, sociologists, experts of law
and
political sciences, historians and everybody else who ia, in one
way or another, engaged in the research of spatial aspeCts
of
socio-economic development and planning.
The series is published by the Centre for Regional Studies.
Individual copies are available on request at the Centre.
Postal address:
MTA Regionalis Kutatasok
Centre for Regional Studies ci Hungz
Kdzpontja
Academy of Sciences
H-7601 PECS
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HUNGAilY
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x
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Forthcoming in the Discussion Papers series:
Administrative Division and Administrative
Geography in Hungary
by
Zoltan Hajdd
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